[go: up one dir, main page]
Jump to content

Occupation of Mongolia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Outer Mongolia
外蒙古
ᠭᠠᠳᠠᠭᠠᠳᠤ
ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ
1919–1921
Coat of arms of Occupation of Mongolia
Coat of arms
Anthem: 《中華雄立宇宙間》
"China Heroically Stands in the Universe"
Map of the Republic of China (excluding the de facto independent Tibet) and its occupation of the Outer Mongolia and Uryankhay Krai regions (shown in light green).
Map of the Republic of China (excluding the de facto independent Tibet) and its occupation of the Outer Mongolia and Uryankhay Krai regions (shown in light green).
StatusMilitary occupation by the Republic of China
CapitalNiislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar)
Common languagesMongolian
Tuvan
Religion
Tibetan Buddhism
GovernmentDirect control from Chinaa
Bogd Khan 
History 
• Chinese troops occupy Urga
October 1919
• Chinese troops defeated at Maimachinb
March 1921
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Mongolia
Uryankhay Krai
Mongolia
Uryankhay Krai
  1. Subsequently under Baron Ungern.
  2. By White Russian forces under Ungern and subsequently by Mongolian People's Party and Russian Red Army forces.[1]
History of Mongolia
Prehistoric period
Afanasievo culture 3300–2500 BC
Chemurchek culture 2750–1900 BC
Munkhkhairkhan culture 1800–1600 BC
Sagsai culture 1500–1000 BC
Ulaanzuukh culture 1450–1150 BC
Deer stones culture 1400–700 BC
Slab-grave culture 1100–300 BC
Chandman culture 700–300 BC
Pazyryk culture 600–300 BC
Ancient period
Xiongnu 209 BC–93 AD
Xianbei state 93–234
Rouran Khaganate 330–555
Göktürks (First, Eastern, and Second Turkic Khaganates) 555–630
682–744
Xueyantuo 628–646
Tang protectorate 647–682
Uyghur Khaganate 744–840
Liao dynasty 907–1125
Medieval period
Mongol khanates 9th–12th century
Khamag Mongol 1130–1206
Mongol Empire 1206–1368
Yuan dynasty 1271–1368
Northern Yuan 1368–1635
Oirat Confederation 1399–1634
Dzungar Khanate 1634–1757
Qing dynasty 1691–1911
Modern period
National Revolution 1911
Bogd Khaganate 1911–1919
Chinese occupation 1919–1921
People's Revolution (Soviet intervention in Bogd Khanate) 1921
1921–1924
People's Republic 1924–1992
Democratic Revolution 1990
Modern Mongolia 1990–present

The occupation of Outer Mongolia by the Beiyang government of the Republic of China after the revocation of Outer Mongolian autonomy (Chinese: 外蒙古撤治) began in October 1919 and lasted until 18 March 1921, when Chinese troops in Urga were routed by Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg's White Russian (Buryats,[2] Russians etc.) and Mongolian forces.[3] These, in turn, were defeated by the Red Army and its Mongolian allies by June 1921.

Although the Beiyang government abolished the autonomy of the Bogd Khanate in Outer Mongolia and then expanded its occupation to include Uryankhay Krai (Tuva), it was unable to consolidate its rule over both regions.

Background

[edit]

In December 1911 during the Xinhai Revolution, Outer Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty in the Mongolian Revolution of 1911. Mongolia became a de facto absolute theocratic monarchy led by the Bogd Khan. However, the newly established Republic of China claimed inheritance of all territories held by the Qing dynasty and considered Outer Mongolia as part of its territory.[4] This claim was provided for in the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor signed by the Empress Dowager Longyu on behalf of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor: "[...] the continued territorial integrity of the lands of the five races, Manchu, Han, Mongol, Hui, and Tibetan into one great Republic of China" ([...] 仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土，為一大中華民國).[5][6][7] The Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China adopted in 1912 specifically established frontier regions of the new republic, including Outer Mongolia, as integral parts of the state.[8]

In the 1915 tripartite Kyakhta Agreement, the Russian Empire (which had strategic interests in Mongolian independence but did not want to completely alienate China), the Republic of China and the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia agreed that Outer Mongolia was autonomous under Chinese suzerainty. However, in the following years Russian influence in Asia waned due to the First World War and, later, the October Revolution. Since 1918, Outer Mongolia was threatened by the Russian Civil War, and in summer 1918 asked for Chinese military assistance, which led to the deployment of a small force to Urga. Grigory Semyonov led the Buryats and Inner Mongols in spearheading a plan to create a pan-Mongol state.[9] Meanwhile, some Mongol aristocrats had become more and more dissatisfied with their marginalization at the hands of the theocratic Lamaist government, and, also provoked by the threat of the Outer Mongolia's independence from the pan-Mongolist movement of Grigory Semyonov in Siberia, were ready to accept Chinese rule by 1919.[10] According to an Associated Press dispatch, some Mongol chieftains signed a petition asking China to retake administration of Mongolia and end Outer Mongolia's autonomy.[11] Since they opposed the Bogd Khan and his clerics, Mongol nobles agreed to abolish Mongol autonomy and reunite with China under an agreement with 63 stipulations signed with Chen Yi (Chinese: 陈毅) in August–September 1919.[12][13] The pan-Mongolist initiative of Grigory Semyonov led by Buryats and Inner Mongols was rejected by the Khalkha Mongol nobles of Urga, so the Khalkha nobles instead assured the Chinese under Chen Yi that they were against it.[14] The prospect of ending Mongol autonomy and having Chinese troops stationed in Niialel Khuree, Altanbulag, Uliyasutai, and Khovd was permitted by the Mongolian government in response to the Japanese-backed Buryatia pan-Mongol movement.[15]

An ally of the Chinese government, the Qinghai-born Monguor Gelugpa Buddhist Lama leader Sixth Janggiya Khutughtu was against the autonomy of Outer Mongolia.[16][17][18]

Causes

[edit]
Duan Qirui

The invasion of Mongolia was the brainchild of Chinese Prime Minister Duan Qirui, who engineered China's entry into World War I. He took out several large loans from the Japanese government, including the Nishihara Loans. He used the money to create the "War Participation Army", ostensibly to battle the Central Powers. His rivals knew that the purpose of the army was really to crush internal dissent. It existed outside the Ministry of the Army and was controlled by the "War Participation Bureau", which he led, and it was staffed entirely by his Anhui clique. President Feng Guozhang, Duan's rival, had no control, despite constitutionally being commander-in-chief. When the war ended without a soldier stepping foot abroad, his critics demanded the disbanding of the War Participation Army. Duan had to find a new purpose for his army. Mongolia was chosen for several reasons:

Invasion

[edit]
Xu Shuzheng[19][20][21]

The pro-Japanese[22] Anhui clique leader Xu Shuzheng led the military occupation of Mongolia in violation of Chen Yi's agreement signed with the Mongol nobles because he wanted to use Mongolia as his own fief.[13][23] Anhui clique was also known as Anfu group.[24] Some authors believe that the Anfu Club was bribed by Japan to implement in Mongolia the strategies of Japan.[25]

The War Participation Army was renamed the Northwestern Frontier Army. Duan gave control of it to his right-hand man, Xu Shuzheng, a member of the pro-Japanese Anhui clique in the Chinese government. They announced that the expedition was at the invitation of several Mongolian princes to protect Mongolia from Bolshevik incursions. It was supposed to begin in July 1919, but the train broke down. In October, Xu led a spearhead group of 4,000 that quickly captured Urga without resistance. Another 10,000 troops followed to occupy the rest of the country. The successful invasion was met with acclaim throughout China, even by Sun Yat-sen's rival southern government, although Sun's telegram could be interpreted sarcastically.[26] It is supposed that the Japanese were the ones who ordered the pro Japanese Chinese warlords to occupy Mongolia to halt a possibly-revolutionary spillover from the Russian revolutionaries into Mongolia and Northern China.;[27] after the Chinese had completed the occupation, the Japanese abandoned them and left them on their own. These data are not confirmed by archival documents which indicate that the occupation of Outer Mongolia was initiative of the Anhiu-led Chinese government caused by weakening of Russia by revolution and civil war.[28] Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren said, "I can defend Mongolia from China and Red Russia."

Xu Shuzheng and Mongolian Noyons in Khüree
Ceremony of the destruction of Mongolia's autonomy in 1920, in front of the Yellow Palace
Green Palace in 1920s

In 1919, the Mongolian Council of Khans was addressed to by Xu Shuzheng in a condescending speech.[29] In February 1920, Xu presided over a very humiliating ceremony in which Bogd Khan and other leaders were forced to kowtow before him and the Five Races Under One Union flag. That event marked the beginning of active resistance against Chinese rule, which coalesced into the Mongolian People's Party.

Domestic politics in China soon changed the situation dramatically. The invasion had caused alarm for Zhang Zuolin, the powerful warlord of Manchuria, who was upset that such a large army was moved so close to his territory. He joined the chorus of critics such as Cao Kun and Wu Peifu calling for the removal of the Anhui clique. In July, they forced President Xu Shichang to remove Xu Shuzheng from his position. In response, Xu Shuzheng moved the bulk of his forces to confront his enemies in China. Both he and Duan Qirui were defeated in the ensuing Zhili–Anhui War. That left only a few Chinese troops in Mongolia without their leadership.[30]

Many of the Chinese troops during the occupation were Tsahar (Chahar) Mongols from Inner Mongolia, which was a major cause for animosity between Outer Mongols (Khalkhas) and Inner Mongols.[31] But the main animosity was directed to Chinese soldiers who were not suitably paid by the Chinese Government. This led to profound looting and murdering of Mongols by Chinese troops in Urga and elsewhere.[32][33]

The Tüsheet Khan Aimag's Prince, Daichin Chin Wang, was a supporter of Chinese rule, but his younger brother Tsewang was a supporter of Ungern.[34]

The Chinese sent a honghuzi-led band of Chahar Inner Mongols to fight against the Outer Mongols, but the Tushegoun Lama killed them.[35][36][37][38] Both the Chinese army and Ungern's force contained Chahar Inner Mongol soldiers, who participating in kidnapping local Outer Mongol women in addition to looting and mutilating the Outer Mongols.[39][40] The plundering Inner Mongol Chahars were recruited by the Chinese High Commissioner Wu Tsin Lao with the deliberate knowledge that they would engage in looting.[41] Deserters, including Russians, from Ungern's forces were punished or killed by the Chahar Inner Mongols in Ungern's army.[42] The Soviet Red Army crushed the Chahar Mongol unit of Ungern's forces.[43]

Roman von Ungern-Sternberg

In October, the White Russian Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg[44] swept into Mongolia from the north, fought many battles against the Chinese garrison stationed in Urga, and captured it in February 1921. There, he defeated the Chinese forces and restored Bogd Khan as monarch. Around the same time, the MPP engaged in its first battle against Chinese troops. After the defeat of the Chinese army, 2000 Chinese petitioned the Living Buddha to enlist in his legions. They were accepted and formed into two regiments, which wore as insignia the old Chinese silver dragons.[45][46][47][48][49]

The reconquest of Outer Mongolia was assigned to Zhang Zuolin.[50][51][52] A joint MPP-Red Army expedition led by Soviet Red commanders and Damdin Sükhbaatar defeated Ungern in August. One of Soviet regiments against Ungern was led by Konstantin Konstantinovich Rokossovsky.[53] Tensions leading up to the First Zhili–Fengtian War and the apparent victory of the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War led to the end of China's involvement. Reincarnations, abbots and lamas were imprisoned or executed by the Mongolian People's Party led by the Soviet Bolsheviks.[54] China rejected the Soviet intervention.[55]

The Transbaikalia Cossack Ataman was Semyonov.[56] A Mongol–Buryat republic was declared in January 1919 by Semyonov.[57] A "Buryat National Department" was created by Semyonov and the Buryat elite like intelligentsia, lamas and noyons and summoned by Semyonov and the Japanese in February 1919.[58] The aim was to unite Buryatia, Tuva, Outer Mongolia, and Inner Mongolia into one Mongol state, discussed at the February 1919 Chita "Pan-Mongol" congress led by Semyonov's Transbaikal Buryats.[59] A "Provisional Government" was set up after the February 1919 meeting.[60] Russian officered Chahars and other Mongols served in Semyonov 's army.[61][62] Inner Mongols made up a division.[63][64] There were Chahars, Tungus, Buryats, Tatars, Bashkirs, and others in the army.[65] The Inner Mongols numbered around 2,000 and were placed in the "Wild Division" of OMO, led by General Levitskii.[66] The White Army cavalry of Semyonov drafted 1,800 Buryats while Buryats were also recruited by the Bolsheviks.[67] In Trans-Baikalia, Semyonov was joined by Kappel, who commanded Aleksandr Vasil'evich Kolchak's rearguard.[68] Semyonov and Kolchak were allied.[69] From 1916 to 1919, the Buryats were subjected to Japanese propaganda.[70] The Paris Peace Conference was attended by representatives from the "Dauria Government" of the pan-Mongol initiative established in February 1919 by Semyonov.[71]

Fushenge led the Bargut and Karachen (Karachin) Mongol soldiers and entrusted the training of them to Ungern.[72][73] The Pan Mongolist Inner Mongolian commander Fushenge was participating in the Pan-Mongol conference with Ungern when they sent representatives to Versailles, but Ungern developed a distaste for the idea of the pan-Mongolian movement due to participation of the Buryat national democrats, and he was not participated in this movement. The Bogd Khan rejected the idea of a pan-Mongol state since he did not want to lose his power to the Japanese and Semenov. Since did not want to provoke China, he rejected a delegation from Dauria in which Fushenge participated.[74] Ungern's Russian officers in Dauria were drilling the Inner Mongol soldiers of Fushenge and Buriat soldiers, but hostility was developing between the Inner Mongols and the Buriats.[75] Fushenge and his soldiers wanted to kill buryats and return to Inner Mongolia. The plot was uncovered, and in a short fight Fushenge and most of conspirators were killed by Russian soldiers.[76]

Aftermath

[edit]
Main article: Mongolian Revolution of 1921

After the Asiatic Cavalry Division drove out the Chinese troops occupying Urga, Mongolia had regained its independence in February 1921.[77] The Chinese Army and the Soviet Red Army defeated the rest of the White Russians like Kazagrandi and Suharev as they fled and abandoned Ungern.[78] The Chinese Army in June 1921 defeated a 350 strong White Russian unit, led by Colonel Kazagrandi, most of whom died in battle although 42 became prisoners.[79]

With the support of the Bolsheviks, Mongolian revolutionaries successively eliminated the Russian White Army and the Chinese Army in Outer Mongolia and a new people's government was established.[77] After a brief period of constitutional monarchy, the Mongolian People's Republic was established in 1924 and would last until 1992.

It was proposed for Zhang Zuolin's domain (the Chinese "Three Eastern Provinces") to take Outer Mongolia under its administration by the Bogd Khan and Bodoo in 1922 after pro-Soviet Mongolian Communists seized control of Outer Mongolia.[34]

For China, the occupation indirectly led to the permanent breakup of the Beiyang Army and the fall of strongman Duan Qirui. That marked the period of high warlordism, as the former officers of Yuan Shikai battled one another for many years to come. Many White Russian guerrillas became mercenaries in China after the occupation. Along with the Siberian Intervention, that was the only foreign military expedition carried out by the Beiyang government. The Republic of China that ruled mainland China at the time claimed Mongolia as part of its territory until 1946. The Nationalist government of China officially recognized the independence of Mongolia in January 1946 after the 1945 Mongolian independence referendum which voted for independence,[80] but the Kuomintang government in Taiwan retracted its recognition of Mongolian independence in 1953 over Soviet assistance of the Communists in the Chinese Civil War.[81]

In 2002, the Government of the Republic of China announced that it now recognized Mongolia as an independent country again,[81] excluding Mongolia from the official maps of the Republic of China and requiring Mongolian citizens visiting Taiwan to produce passports.[82] Informal relations were established between Mongolia and Taiwan via trade offices in Ulan Bator and Taipei but without formal diplomatic recognition. The One-China policy makes Mongolia recognize only the People's Republic of China. In 2012, the Mainland Affairs Council issued a statement saying that "Mongolia (formerly known as Outer Mongolia in Taiwan) has never been part of its constitutionally claimed territory."[83]

Many Buryats had served in Ungern's army and with Stalin's ensuing persecutions, Mongolia became a refuge for many fleeing Buryats.[84][85] The Soviets divided the Mongols away from the Tuvan and the Buryat peoples, though they had been separate during the preceding Russian Empire and the time of the Uryankhay Republic.[86] During Soviet rule, Bolshevik officials conducted an anti-Buddhist campaign in Buryatia, executing many in a cultural and intelligentsia purge.[87][88] The Soviets faced opposition in their anti-religious campaign from Buryat clerics.[89] Mongol nationalism in Transbaikalia and Buryatia was equated with Grigory Semenov by the Mongolian communists and the Soviets.[90] The Buryat-Mongolia Communist Party First Secretary Verbanov was executed in Stalin's purge.[91] Buryatia and Tuva are today part of the Russian Federation, with ethnic Russians making up most of Buryatia's population since the turn of the 20th century.[92]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Stephen Kotkin (6 November 2014). Stalin: Volume I: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 282–. ISBN 978-0-698-17010-0.
  2. ^ Willard Sunderland (9 May 2014). The Baron's Cloak: A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution. Cornell University Press. pp. 224–. ISBN 978-0-8014-7106-3.
  3. ^ Alfred J. Rieber (25 August 2015). Stalin and the Struggle for Supremacy in Eurasia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-1-316-35219-9.
  4. ^ Tanner, Harold (2009). China: A History. Hackett. p. 419. ISBN 978-0872209152.
  5. ^ Esherick, Joseph; Kayali, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006). Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 245. ISBN 9780742578159.
  6. ^ Zhai, Zhiyong (2017). 憲法何以中國. City University of HK Press. p. 190. ISBN 9789629373214.
  7. ^ Gao, Quanxi (2016). 政治憲法與未來憲制. City University of HK Press. p. 273. ISBN 9789629372910.
  8. ^ Zhao, Suisheng (2004). A Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780804750011.
  9. ^ Jasper Becker (15 June 2008). Mongolia: Travels in the Untamed Land. Jasper Becker. pp. 355–. GGKEY:WYN69Z428Q4.
  10. ^ Thomas E. Ewing, "Russia, China, and the Origins of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1911-1921: A Reappraisal", in The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Jul., 1980), p. 406ff
  11. ^ "Outer Mongolia, Tired of Autonomy, Asks China to Pay Her Princes and Take Her Back". The New York Times. The Associated Press. October 31, 1919. p. 17.
  12. ^ James Palmer (June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. Basic Books. pp. 122–. ISBN 978-0-465-02207-6.
  13. ^ a b Jon D. Holstine (16 January 2015). Recent Outer Mongolian International Relations: A Time Capsule. Lulu.com. pp. 1899–. ISBN 978-1-312-67014-3.
  14. ^ Willard Sunderland (9 May 2014). The Baron's Cloak: A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution. Cornell University Press. pp. 181–. ISBN 978-0-8014-7106-3.
  15. ^ Narangoa Li; Robert Cribb (17 June 2014). Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. Columbia University Press. pp. 167–. ISBN 978-0-231-16070-4.
  16. ^ Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the IATS, 2003. Volume 9: The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. BRILL. 11 September 2007. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-90-474-2171-9.
  17. ^ Joseph Esherick; Hasan Kayalı; Eric Van Young (1 January 2006). Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 267–. ISBN 978-0-7425-4031-6.
  18. ^ Uradyn E. Bulag (16 July 2010). Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 73–. ISBN 978-1-4422-0433-1.
  19. ^ Elizabeth Endicott (13 November 2012). A History of Land Use in Mongolia: The Thirteenth Century to the Present. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-1-137-26967-6.
  20. ^ Asia and Africa Today. Asia and Africa Today. 1984. p. 34.
  21. ^ Anthony B. Chan (1 October 2010). Arming the Chinese: The Western Armaments Trade in Warlord China, 1920-28, Second Edition. UBC Press. pp. 69–. ISBN 978-0-7748-1992-3.
  22. ^ Larry Weirather (11 November 2015). Fred Barton and the Warlords' Horses of China: How an American Cowboy Brought the Old West to the Far East. McFarland. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-7864-9913-7.
  23. ^ James Palmer (June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. Basic Books. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-0-465-02207-6.
  24. ^ Zhamsrangiĭn Sambuu; Mary Rossabi (2010). Herdsman to Statesman: The Autobiography of Jamsrangiin Sambuu of Mongolia. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-1-4422-0750-9.
  25. ^ Otto Maenchen-Helfen (1 January 1992). Journey to Tuva. Ethnographics Press, University of Southern California. p. 200. ISBN 978-1-878986-04-7.
  26. ^ Xiaobing Li; Patrick Fuliang Shan (16 October 2015). Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance. Lexington Books. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-1-4985-0729-5.
  27. ^ John S. Major (1990). The land and people of Mongolia. Harper and Row. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-397-32386-9. in 1919, a Japanese influenced faction in the Chinese government mounted an invasion of Outer Mongolia and forced its leaders to sign a "request" to be taken over by the government of China. Japan's aim was to protect its own economic, political, and military interests in North China be keeping the Russian Revolution from influencing Mongolia.
  28. ^ Kuzmin, S.L. (2011). The History of Baron Ungern. An Experience of Reconstruction. Moscow: KMK Sci. Press, p. 121-141, ISBN 978-5-87317-692-2
  29. ^ Willard Sunderland (9 May 2014). The Baron's Cloak: A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution. Cornell University Press. pp. 281–. ISBN 978-0-8014-7106-3.
  30. ^ Great Britain. Foreign Office; Sir Ernest Llewellyn Woodward (1966). Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939. H.M. Stationery Office. pp. 129–130.
  31. ^ Bulag, Uradyn Erden (1998). Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia (illustrated ed.). Clarendon Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0198233572. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  32. ^ Kuzmin, S.L. (2011). The History of Baron Ungern. An Experience of Reconstruction. Moscow: KMK Sci. Press, p. 164-165, ISBN 978-5-87317-692-2
  33. ^ Kuzmin, S. L. 2016. Theocratic Statehood and the Buddhist Church in Mongolia in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Moscow: KMK Sci. Press, p. 147-148, ISBN 978-5-9907838-0-5
  34. ^ a b Owen Lattimore; Sh Nachukdorji (1955). Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia. Brill Archive. pp. 171–. GGKEY:4D2GY636WK5.
  35. ^ Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (1922). Beasts, Men and Gods. E. P. Dutton. pp. 124–. chahars hunghutze.
  36. ^ Ferdinand Antoni Ossendowski (2014-05-19). Bestie, Uomini, Dei: Il mistero del Re del Mondo. Edizioni Mediterranee. pp. 100–. ISBN 978-88-272-2550-9.
  37. ^ Jamie Bisher (16 January 2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. pp. 336–. ISBN 978-1-135-76596-5.
  38. ^ Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (1922). Beasts, Men and Gods. E. P. Dutton. pp. 114–.
  39. ^ Uradyn Erden Bulag (1 January 1998). Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia. Clarendon Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-19-823357-2.
  40. ^ Nicholas Poppe (1978). Tsongol Folklore: Translation of the Collection The Language and Collective Farm Poetry of the Buriat Mongols of the Selenga Region. Harrassowitz. p. 40. ISBN 978-3-447-01942-2.
  41. ^ Clements Ripley (1930). Devil Drums. Brewer & Warren, Incorporated; Payson & Clarke Limited. p. 2.
  42. ^ James Palmer (13 June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: El Sicario (large print 16 points). ReadHowYouWant.com. pp. 208–. ISBN 978-1-4596-1453-6.
  43. ^ Jasper Becker (15 June 2008). Mongolia: Travels in the Untamed Land. Jasper Becker. pp. 119–. GGKEY:WYN69Z428Q4.
  44. ^ Mongolian People's Republic: Outer Mongolia. Human Relations Area Files. 1956. p. 98.
  45. ^ Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (1922). Beasts, Men and Gods. E. P. Dutton. pp. 236–. old chinese silver dragons on their caps and shoulders.
  46. ^ East and West Association (U.S.) (1922). Asia and the Americas. pp. 616–.
  47. ^ Michael Barry Miller (1994). Shanghai on the Métro: Spies, Intrigue, and the French Between the Wars. University of California Press. pp. 279–. ISBN 978-0-520-08519-0.
  48. ^ Jamie Bisher (16 January 2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. pp. 275–. ISBN 978-1-135-76595-8.
  49. ^ Jamie Bisher (16 January 2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. pp. 332–. ISBN 978-1-135-76596-5.
  50. ^ Allen S. Whiting (1 January 1954). Soviet Policies in China, 1917-1924. Stanford University Press. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-0-8047-0612-4.
  51. ^ Papers Relating to Pacific and Far Eastern Affairs. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1922. pp. xx–.
  52. ^ China Review. China Trade Bureau, Incorporated. 1922. pp. 11–.
  53. ^ Robert Arthur Rupen (1979). How Mongolia is really ruled: a political history of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1900–1978. Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-8179-7122-9.
  54. ^ Current History. The Times. 1939. p. 33.
  55. ^ Bruce A. Elleman (10 April 2015). International Competition in China, 1899–1991: The Rise, Fall, and Restoration of the Open Door Policy. Routledge. pp. 68–. ISBN 978-1-317-53778-6.
  56. ^ Mikhail V. Khodjakov (19 November 2014). Money of the Russian Revolution: 1917–1920. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 168–. ISBN 978-1-4438-7147-1.
  57. ^ Mikhail Khvostov (1997). The Russian Civil War (2): White Armies. Osprey Publishing. pp. 23–. ISBN 978-1-85532-656-9.
  58. ^ G. D. R. Phillips (1942). Dawn in Siberia: The Mongols of Lake Baikal. F. Muller, Limited. p. 124.
  59. ^ Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta (2007). Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. pp. 556–. ISBN 978-81-317-0851-4.
  60. ^ David J. Dallin (16 April 2013). The Rise Of Russia In Asia. Read Books Ltd. pp. 169–. ISBN 978-1-4733-8257-2.
  61. ^ Kuzmin, S. L. 2016. Theocratic Statehood and the Buddhist Church in Mongolia in the Beginning of the 20th Century. Moscow: KMK Sci. Press, p. 120-155, ISBN 978-5-9907838-0-5
  62. ^ Soviet Literature. Foreign Languages Publishing House. September 1950. p. 58.
  63. ^ James Forsyth (8 September 1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990. Cambridge University Press. pp. 274–. ISBN 978-0-521-47771-0.
  64. ^ Eva Jane Neumann Fridman (1 January 2004). Sacred Geography: Shamanism Among the Buddhist Peoples of Russia. Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 116. ISBN 978-963-05-8114-1.
  65. ^ Willard Sunderland (9 May 2014). The Baron's Cloak: A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution. Cornell University Press. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-0-8014-7106-3.
  66. ^ Jamie Bisher (16 January 2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. pp. 220–. ISBN 978-1-135-76595-8.
  67. ^ Eva Jane Neumann Fridman (1 January 2004). Sacred Geography: Shamanism Among the Buddhist Peoples of Russia. Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 116. ISBN 978-963-05-8114-1.
  68. ^ Mike J. Gane (31 January 2002). Radical Sociology of Durkheim and Mauss. Routledge. pp. 222–. ISBN 978-1-134-92236-9.
  69. ^ Norman Davies (30 April 2011). White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War 1919-20. Random House. pp. 89–. ISBN 978-1-4464-6686-5.
  70. ^ Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura (1999). Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. Seura. p. 265.
  71. ^ Anna Reid (26 May 2009). The Shamans Coat: A Native History of Siberia. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-8027-1917-1.
  72. ^ James Palmer (June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. Basic Books. pp. 86–. ISBN 978-0-465-02207-6.
  73. ^ James Palmer (June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. Basic Books. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-0-465-02207-6.
  74. ^ James Palmer (June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. Basic Books. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-465-02207-6.
  75. ^ James Palmer (June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. Basic Books. pp. 109–. ISBN 978-0-465-02207-6.
  76. ^ Kuzmin, S.L. (2011). The History of Baron Ungern. An Experience of Reconstruction. Moscow: KMK Sci. Press, p. 135-137, ISBN 978-5-87317-692-2
  77. ^ a b "China/Mongolia (1911-1946)". University of Central Arkansas. Department of Government, Public Service, and International Studies. Retrieved 2024-02-14.
  78. ^ James Palmer (June 2011). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. Basic Books. pp. 211–. ISBN 978-0-465-02207-6.
  79. ^ Jamie Bisher (16 January 2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. pp. 339–. ISBN 978-1-135-76596-5.
  80. ^ "蒙古不是中華民國固有之疆域". Liberty Times 自由時報. Archived from the original on 2021-02-03. Retrieved 2021-02-06.
  81. ^ a b "Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year". Taipei Times. 2002-10-11. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-28. In October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for independence, gaining the recognition of many countries, including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring of relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia, reclaiming it as ROC territory. {...} Long a province of China, Mongolia declared its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing. After the Ministry of the Interior's recent decision to exclude Mongolia from the official ROC map, on Oct. 3, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country -- 81 years after Mongolia declared its independence.
  82. ^ "Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China". BBC News. 2002-02-26. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
  83. ^ "有關外蒙古是否為中華民國領土問題說明新聞參考資料" [Reference materials about the territory of the Republic of China excluding Outer Mongolia] (PDF) (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Mainland Affairs Council. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  84. ^ Manduhai Buyandelger (1 November 2013). Tragic Spirits: Shamanism, Memory, and Gender in Contemporary Mongolia. University of Chicago Press. pp. 60–. ISBN 978-0-226-08655-2.
  85. ^ Alan Sanders (9 April 2003). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 46–. ISBN 978-0-8108-4434-6.
  86. ^ Andrei Znamenski (19 December 2012). Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia. Quest Books. pp. 117–. ISBN 978-0-8356-3028-3.
  87. ^ Caroline Humphrey (1998). Marx Went Away--but Karl Stayed Behind. University of Michigan Press. pp. xiv–. ISBN 978-0-472-06676-6.
  88. ^ Chö-yang. Council for Religious and Cultural Affairs of H.H. the Dalai Lama. 1992. p. 119.
  89. ^ Andrei Znamenski (19 December 2012). Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia. Quest Books. pp. 227–. ISBN 978-0-8356-3028-3.
  90. ^ Jamie Bisher (16 January 2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. pp. 303–. ISBN 978-1-135-76595-8.
  91. ^ Solomon M. Schwarz (1951). The Jews in the Soviet Union. p. 71.
  92. ^ Chakars, Melissa (2014). The socialist way of life in Siberia : transformation in Buryatia. Budapest. ISBN 978-963-386-014-4. OCLC 878406217.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Sources

[edit]
  • Hsi-sheng Chi (1976). The Warlord Politics in China, 1916–1928. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0894-0
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Occupation_of_Mongolia&oldid=1247998663"