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Muslin

(Redirected from Mulmul)
"Muslin gauze" redirects here. For American English usage of "muslin", see Calico.
Not to be confused with Muslims.

Muslin (/ˈmʌzlɪn/) is a cotton fabric of plain weave.[1] It is made in a wide range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting.[2] It is commonly believed that it gets its name from the city of Mosul, Iraq.[3][4][5]

Woman's white muslin dress with tiered flounces, Europe, c. 1855.

Muslin was produced in different regions of the Indian subcontinent; Bengal was the main manufacturing region and the main centers were Sonargaon (near Dhaka), Shantipur and Murshidabad. Muslin was also produced in Malda and Hooghly. The muslin produced at Sonargaon and its surrounding areas was of excellent quality, which is popularly known as Dhaka Muslin. The muslin produced in Shantipur came to be known as Shantipuri Muslin, which was recognized by the East India Company. Muslin was made in Dhaka (Sonargaon) from very fine yarn, which is made from cotton called Phuti karpas; while in Malda, Radhanagar and Burdwan, muslin was made from fine yarn made from nurma or kaur cotton. A minimum of 300-count yarn was used for the muslin, making the muslin as transparent as glass.[citation needed] There were about 28 varieties of muslin, of which jamdani is still widely used. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world, with Dhaka as capital of the worldwide muslin trade.[6][7] In the latter half of the 18th century, muslin weaving ceased in Bengal due to cheap fabrics from England and oppression by the colonialists.

In India in the latter half of the 20th century and in Bangladesh in the second decade of the 21st century, initiatives were taken to revive muslin weaving, and the industry was able to be revived. Dhakai Muslin was recognized as a Geographical Indication (GI) product of Bangladesh in 2020[8] and Banglar Muslin (Bengal Muslin) was recognized as a Geographical Indication (GI) product of the Indian state of West Bengal in 2024.[9] In 2013, Jamdani (a type of muslin) weaving art of Bangladesh included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO under the title Traditional art of Jamdani Weaving.[10]

Etymology

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The dictionary Hobson Jobson published by two Englishmen named S.C. Burnell and Henry Yule mentions that the word muslin comes from 'Mosul'—a famous trading center and city in Iraq. Mosul produced a very fine cloth, which became known as muslin in Europe.

History

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Early period

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The earliest specimen of Indian fine cotton cloth (like muslin) was found in Egypt as a mummy shroud around 2000 BC. The first commercial mention of Indian cotton is found in The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (63 AD). The book mentions the export of fine cotton textiles from different parts of India to Europe. The eastern (Bengal) and north-western regions of India produced large quantities of fine cotton cloth, but Bengal cotton cloth was superior in quality. According to the text, European merchants procured fine cotton fabrics from the Gange port of Bengal. In this text, broad and smooth cotton cloth is referred to as Monachi and the finest cotton cloth is called Gangetic. A kingdom called 'Ruhma' is found in the Sulaiman al-Tajir written by the 9th century Arab merchant Sulaiman, where fine cotton fabrics was produced. There were cotton fabrics so fine and delicate that a single piece of cloth could be easily moved through the ring. Very fine cotton cloth was made in Mosul in the 12th century and later. Arab traders carried it to Europe as a commodity, and enchanted Europeans called it muslin; since then the very fine and beautiful cotton cloth came to be known as muslin. In 1298 AD, Marco Polo described in his book The Travels that muslin is made in Mosul, Iraq.[11] Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveler who came to Bengal in the middle of the 14th century, praised the cotton cloth made in Sonargaon in his book The Rihla. Chinese writers who came to Bengal in the fifteenth century praised cotton cloth.

Mughal period

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A woman in Bengal wearing Dhaka Muslin, titled "Muslim Lady Reclining" by Francesco Renaldi (1789).
 
In 2015, the diaphanous quality of muslin woven at Sonargaon in the 18th century is being tested in Kolkata.

The muslin industry flourished in Bengal between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. The main muslin production centers in Bengal during this period were Dhaka and its surrounding areas, Shantipur, Malda and Hooghly. The 16th-century English traveller Ralph Fitch lauded the muslin he saw in Sonargaon.[12] He visited India in 1583, described Sonargaon, "as a town ...... where there is the best and finest cloth made in all India". During the reign of Emperor Jahangir, Islam Khan Chishti shifted the capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka in 1610 AD, Dhaka gained prominence as the center of trade and commerce of Bengal. During this period the muslin produced in Dhaka achieved excellence, and the muslin produced here became world famous as Dhakai muslin. Mughal Emperor Akbar's courtier, Abul Fazal, praised the fine cotton fabric produced in Sonargaon (near Dhaka). Abul Fazl wrote "the Sarkar of Sonargaon produces a species of muslin very fine and in great quantity". European traders began arriving in the Bengali capital of Dhaka in the early seventeenth century, and these traders procured cotton cloth and muslin from Bengal for export to Europe.

After the establishment of Murshidabad as the capital of Bengal, Cossimbazar—a small town on the banks of the Bhagirathi south of Murshidabad city, now included in the Baharampur municipality—became the center of a silk and cotton textile trade. The branch of the Bhagirathi that joined the Jalangi was called Cossimbazar river, and the triangular land surrounded by the Padma, Bhagirathi and Jalangi was called Cossimbazar Island. It was a major trading center for muslin and silk and a trading post (kuthi) of various European merchants. In 1670 AD, Streynsham Master mention that muslin was produced at Malda, Shantipur, Hooghly etc. Advaitacharya Goswami's Shantipur Parichaẏa, Volume II mentions that the East India Company purchased £150,000 worth of muslin annually in the early 19th century.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world, with Mughal Dhaka as capital of the worldwide muslin trade.[6][13] It became highly popular in 18th-century France and eventually spread across much of the Western world. Dhaka muslin was first showcased in the UK at The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations in 1851.[14]

Decline under Company rule

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During the period of Company rule, the East India Company imported British-produced cloth into the Indian subcontinent, but became unable to compete with the local muslin industry. The Company administration initiated several policies in an attempt to suppress the muslin industry, and muslin production subsequently experienced a period of decline. It has been alleged that in some instances Indian weavers were rounded up and their thumbs chopped off, although this has been refuted by historians as a misreading of a report by William Bolts from 1772.[15][16][17] Many of the threatened weavers fled East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) and settled in the eastern districts of West Bengal, these districts were famous for the cotton products of Bengal. The quality, fineness and production volume of Bengali muslin declined as a result of these policies, continuing when India transitioned from Company rule to British Crown control.[15][18]

Revive: 1950s—Present

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India

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To revive Bengal muslin, two muslin production centers were set up by the Khadi and Rural Industries Commission, one at Basowa in Birbhum district of West Bengal, and the other at Panduru in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. Under the patronage of former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Kalicharan Sharma took the lead in reviving the lost fame of muslin in Basowa, Birbhum district of West Bengal, with the help of some spinners. He soon found the dry climate of Birbhum quite unsuitable for spinning muslin yarn. Later he shifted his work center to the neighboring district of Murshidabad, and chose Chowk Islampur as the site of this weaving industry. Chowk Islampur, situated on the banks of the Bairab River, a tributary of the Padma, is an ancient village famous for spinning and weaving since the days of the East India Company. After India's independence, the village had already gained a reputation for high-quality silk weaving. A muslin training center was started at Chowk Islampur in 1955 under the supervision of Kalicharan Sharma.

At first experiments were started on spinning yarn with traditional Kishan Charkha, but it was not possible to make more than 250 counts on this traditional Charkha. Kalicharan Sharma did further experiments and research and developed a highly sensitive six spindle Ambar Charkha (spinning wheel) capable of spinning 500 count yarn. This new Charkha was able to reduce the cost of production and increase the wages of spinners. The use of this ambar Charkha proved to be effective and promising for the regeneration of muslin. To concentrate on muslin spinning, the Khadi Society constructed a separate spacious two-storied building at Berhampore in 1966.

The Government of West Bengal launched "Project Muslin" in 2013 with Khadi. The aim in this initiative was to revive the muslin fabric and support the weavers. Through this project, weavers from Murshidabad, Nadia, Maldah, Burdwan, Birbhum, Hooghly and Jhargram districts who are capable of weaving muslin cloth were identified.[19] All these weavers are provided training and technical assistance to produce high quality muslin. Weavers are capable of producing 500 counts of muslin; Some weavers have been able to weave 700 count muslin.[20][21][22] Project Muslin was able to expand the production of muslin in different parts of West Bengal. Muslin products produced in West Bengal include handkerchiefs, dhoti, bed sheets and men's and women's clothing. According to 2015 data, the products were priced between ₹400 and ₹25,000, while some premium sarees in this category were priced between ₹70,000 and ₹150,000.[23]

  • The Bengal Muslin (20th century)
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    Display of Bengal muslin fabrics, which are woven from 100 count to 500 count yarns.
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    Muslin saree passing through a finger ring.
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    Two muslin sarees packaged in two small cardboard boxes of size approx 8 inches X 6 inches X 2 inches.
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    Muslin saree weaving in Kalna, West Bengal.

Bangladesh

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See also: Muslin trade in Bengal, Textile arts of Bangladesh, Textile industry of Bangladesh, and Jamdani

In the second decade of the 21st century, a scheme called Bangladesh Golden Heritage Muslin Yarn Manufacturing Technology and Muslin Cloth Restoration was undertaken to restore and develop the muslin production system in Bangladesh. Under this project, samples of muslin from different countries including India, Britain were inspected and data collected. Old maps of the Meghna River were examined and combined with modern satellite imagery to identify possible locations – where footy carpus plants could still be found. From there, the genetic sequences of the recovered cotton plants were made and compared with the original ones. After testing, a carpus plant was identified, which was 70 percent identical to the Futi carpus. An island in the Meghna, 30 km north of Dhaka, was selected for the production of this corpus, where some seeds were sown experimentally in 2015, and the first cotton was harvested that year. But at that time there were no skilled spinners in Bangladesh to produce fine yarn, on the other hand Indian spinners were able to produce 200-300-400-500 count fine yarn from cotton. As a result, in joint venture with Indian spinners, a hybrid yarn of 200 and 300 count was produced by combining common and futi corpus cotton. At least 50 tools were needed to make cloth from yarn, which had to be reinvented, as they disappeared with muslin. Ultimately a weaver is able to weave a saree with a thread count of 300, which is nowhere near the quality of real Dhaka muslin; But much better quality than what the weavers of many generations past have woven.

The Bangladesh Handloom Board (BHB) is implementing the first phase of the project titled Bangladesh's Golden Heritage Muslin Yarn Manufacturing Technology and Muslin Cloth Reviving, and the Revival work was completed in 2020.[24] Dhakai Muslin was recognized as a GI (Geographical Indication) product on 28 December 2020. The Government of Bangladesh declared official revival of fine Dhaka Muslin in April 2022.[25][26]

In 2022, the Dhakai Muslin House was built on the banks of Shitalakshya river at Rupganj under Tarab municipality of Narayanganj district. The second phase of the project named ‘Dhaka Muslin Commercialization’ begins in 2023.

  • The Dhakai Muslin (21st century)
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    A Dhakai muslin saree, produced by "Bangladesh Handloom Board (BHB)" under the project "Bangladesh Muslin Golden Heritage of Technology Reviving the Technology of Muslin Golden Heritage".
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    Dhaka muslin fabric
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    A scarf of Dhakai muslin, woven with 300 count yarn.
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    Saida Muna Tasneem, the high commissioner of Bangladesh to the United Kingdom, in a pastel green muslin Sari.

Manufacturing process

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Since all the processes were manual, manufacturing involved many artisans for yarn spinning and weaving activities, but the leading role lay with the material and weaving.[27]

  • Ginning: For removing trash and cleaning and combing the fibers and making them parallel ready for spinning a boalee (upper jaw of a catfish) was used.
  • Spinning and weaving: For extra humidity they used to weave during the rainy season for elasticity in the yarns and to avoid breakages. The process was so sluggish that it could take over five months to weave one piece of muslin.[28]

Characteristics

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Thin

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Muslins were originally made of cotton only. These were very thin, transparent, delicate and feather light breathable fabrics. There could be 1000–1800 yarns in warp and weigh 110 g (3.8 oz) for 0.91 m × 9.14 m (1 yd × 10 yd). Some varieties of muslin were so thin that they could even pass through the aperture of a lady's finger-ring.[29][30][31]

Transparency

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Gaius Petronius Arbiter (1st century AD Roman courtier and author of the Satyricon) described the transparent nature of the muslin cloth as below:[32]

Thy bride might as well clothe herself with a garment of the wind as stand forth publicly naked under her clouds of muslin.

— Petronius[33]

Poetic names

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Certain delicate muslins were given poetic names such as Baft Hawa ("woven air"), Shabnam ("evening dew"), and āb-i-ravān ("flowing water"). The latter name refers to a fine and transparent variety of fine muslin from Dacca.[34] The fabric's characteristics are summed up in its name.[35][36]

Types

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Muslin has several kinds of variations. Many of the below are mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari (16th-century detailed document)

More variations

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Mull is another kind of muslin. It is a soft, thin, and semitransparent material. The name is derived from Hindi "mal" which means "soft". Swiss mull is a type of which is finished with stiffening agents.[49]

Uses

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Dressmaking and sewing

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In Advantages of wearing Muslin Dresses! (1802), James Gillray satirically pointed out a hazard of untreated muslin: its flammability.

Because muslin is an inexpensive, unbleached cotton fabric available in different weights, it is often used as a backing or lining for quilts, and therefore can often be found in wide widths in the quilting sections of fabric stores.

 
White muslin nightgown

When sewing clothing, a dressmaker may test the fit of a garment by using muslin fabric to make a test-model before cutting pieces from more expensive fabric to make the final product, thereby avoiding potential costly mistakes. In the United States, these test-models are themselves sometimes referred to as "muslins," the process is called "making a muslin," and "muslin" has become the generic term for any test- or fitting garment, regardless of the fabric it is made from.

In Britain and Australia, the term for a test- or fitting garment used to be[50] Toile.[51] The word "toile," from an Old French word for "cloth," entered the English language around the 12th century. (Today, toile simply refers to any sheer fabric, which may be made, for example, from linen or cotton.)

The modern German term for a test- or fitting garment is Nesselmodell.[52]

Use in food production

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Main article: Cheesecloth

Muslin can be used as a filter:

  • In a funnel when decanting fine wine or port to prevent sediment from entering the decanter
  • To separate liquid from mush (for example, to make apple juice: wash, chop, boil, mash, then filter by pouring the mush into a muslin bag suspended over a jug)
  • To retain a liquidy solid (for example, in home cheese-making, when the milk has curdled to a gel, pour into a muslin bag and squash between two saucers (upside down under a brick) to squeeze out the liquid whey from the cheese curd)
  • Muslin is a filter in traditional Fijian kava production.

Muslin is the material for the traditional cloth wrapped around a Christmas pudding. It is the fabric wrapped around the items in barmbrack, a fruitcake traditionally eaten at Halloween in Ireland. Beekeepers use muslin to filter melted beeswax to clean it of particles and debris.

Set design and photography

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Muslin is often the cloth of choice for theatre sets. It is used to mask the background of sets and to establish the mood or feel of different scenes. It receives paint well and, if treated properly, can be made translucent.

It also holds dyes well. It is often used to create nighttime scenes because when dyed, it often gets a wavy look with the color varying slightly, such that it resembles a night sky. Muslin shrinks after it is painted or sprayed with water, which is desirable in some common techniques such as soft-covered flats.

In video production, muslin is used as a cheap greenscreen or bluescreen, either pre-colored or painted with latex paint (diluted with water).

Muslin is the most common backdrop material used by photographers for formal portrait backgrounds. These backdrops are usually painted, most often with an abstract mottled pattern.

In the early days of silent film-making, and until the late 1910s, movie studios did not have the elaborate lights needed to illuminate indoor sets, so most interior scenes were sets built outdoors with large pieces of muslin hanging overhead to diffuse sunlight.

Medicine

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A first-aid packet of 5m of "hydrophilic muslin", given to Italian soldiers in World War I

Surgeons use muslin gauze in cerebrovascular neurosurgery to wrap around aneurysms or intracranial vessels at risk for bleeding.[53] The thought is that the gauze reinforces the artery and helps prevent rupture. It is often used for aneurysms that, due to their size or shape, cannot be microsurgically clipped or coiled.[54]

Recognition

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Many travelers and merchants of the 13th and 14th centuries praised Bengal muslin, and claimed it as the best muslin. From the Mughal rulers to the European colonial rulers, Bengal's muslins were recognized for their superiority, with the muslins produced at Sonargaon being the best.

In 2013, the traditional art of Jamdani weaving in Bangladesh was included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.[55] In 2020, Dhakai muslin was given Geographical indication status as a product of Bangladesh.[56] In 2024, Banglar Muslin (or Bengal Muslin) was granted Geographical Indication status as a product of West Bengal.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ muslin (noun), Oxford English Dictionary, Third Edition, March 2003, archived from the original on 10 August 2017, retrieved 17 March 2014
  2. ^ muslin (noun), Webster's Unabridged Dictionary
  3. ^ muslin, Encyclopaedia Britannica, archived from the original on 4 May 2015, retrieved 23 June 2022
  4. ^ The Fairchild Books Dictionary of Textiles, A&C Black, 2013, pp. 404–, ISBN 978-1-60901-535-0, archived from the original on 7 July 2023, retrieved 13 May 2016
  5. ^ muslin (noun), etymology, Oxford English Dictionary, Third Edition, March 2003, archived from the original on 10 August 2017, retrieved 17 March 2014
  6. ^ a b Eaton, Richard Maxwell (1996). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-520-20507-9. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
  7. ^ Karim, Abdul (2012). "Muslin". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
  8. ^ "মঞ্জুরকৃত জিআই পণ্য". dpdt.portal.gov.bd. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
  9. ^ "Intellectual Property India – Journal 182". Retrieved 21 March 2024.
  10. ^ "Jamdani recognised as intangible cultural heritage by Unesco", The Daily Star, 5 December 2013, archived from the original on 6 December 2013, retrieved 4 December 2013
  11. ^ Polo, Marco. "The most noble and famous travels of Marco Polo, together with the travels of Nicoláo de' Conti". Translated by John Frampton, London, A. and C. Black, 1937, p.28.
  12. ^ Shamim, Shahid Hussain; Selim, Lala Rukh (2007). "Handloom Textiles". In Selim, Lala Rukh (ed.). Art and Crafts. Cultural survey of Bangladesh series. Vol. 8. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. p. 552. OCLC 299379796.
  13. ^ Karim, Abdul (2012). "Muslin". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
  14. ^ Gorvett, Zaria. "The ancient fabric that no one knows how to make". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
  15. ^ a b Bolts, William (1772). Considerations on India affairs: particularly respecting the present state of Bengal and its dependencies. Printed for J. Almon. pp. 194–195.
  16. ^ Edwards, Michael (June 1976). Growth of the British Cotton Trade 1780–1815. Augustus M Kelley Pubs. p. 37. ISBN 0-678-06775-9.
  17. ^ Marshall, P. J. (1988). India and Indonesia during the Ancien Regime. E.J. Brill. p. 90. ISBN 978-90-04-08365-3.
  18. ^ Samuel, T. John (2013). Many avatars : challenges, achievements and the future. [S.l.]: Friesenpress. ISBN 978-1-4602-2893-7.
  19. ^ "Govt steps up muslin revival with infra support to weavers". The Indian Express. 31 December 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  20. ^ Bandyopadhyay, Debashis (12 June 2019). "সূক্ষ্ম মসলিন বুননে নতুন পালক জি আই". www.anandabazar.com. ABP. Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  21. ^ Bandyopadhyay, Pinaki (7 January 2019). "হারাতে বসা মসলিন ফিরছে খাদির হাত ধরে". Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  22. ^ Bhattacharya, Kedarnath (2 September 2023). "শাড়ির নকশায় ভাবনা মেশান জ্যোতিষ". Kalna. Retrieved 25 August 2024.
  23. ^ Ghosal, Sutanuka; Roy, Tasmayee Laha (21 November 2015). "How Mamata Banerjee's Biswa Bangla is bringing dying arts, crafts back from the brink". The Economic Times. Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  24. ^ "Legendary Muslin revived again, Textile Today, 2 January 2021". 2 January 2021. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
  25. ^ "Bangladesh resurrects precious woven-air Dhaka muslin".
  26. ^ "Textile hub Bangladesh revives muslin, the forgotten elite fabric".
  27. ^ A descriptive and historical account of the cotton manufacture of Dacca, in Bengal. John Mortimer. 1851.
  28. ^ Ashmore, Sonia (1 October 2018). "Handcraft as luxury in Bangladesh: Weaving jamdani in the twenty-first century". International Journal of Fashion Studies. 5 (2): 389–397. doi:10.1386/infs.5.2.389_7. S2CID 166980808. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2020.
  29. ^ Watson, John Forbes (1867). The Textile Manufactures and the Costumes of the People of India. Allen. p. 75.
  30. ^ Balfour, Edward (1885). The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial Industrial, and Scientific: Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures. Bernard Quaritch. p. 830.
  31. ^ Indian Journal of Economics. University of Allahabad, Department of Economics. 1998. p. 435.
  32. ^ "Legendary fabric". Deccan Herald. 14 January 2017. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
  33. ^ Gorvett, Zaria. "The ancient fabric that no one knows how to make". Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
  34. ^ Weibel, Adèle Coulin (1952). Two thousand years of textiles; the figured textiles of Europe and the Near East. Internet Archive. New York, Published for the Detroit Institute of Arts [by] Pantheon Books. p. 54.
  35. ^ Fairchild's dictionary of textiles. New York, Fairchild Publications. 1959. p. 4.
  36. ^ King, Brenda M. (3 September 2005). Silk and Empire. Manchester University Press. pp. 61, xvi. ISBN 978-0-7190-6700-6.
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  38. ^ Khadi Gramodyog. Khadi & Village Industries Commission. 2001. p. 88.
  39. ^ Congress, Indian History (1967). Proceedings. Indian History Congress. p. 243.
  40. ^ Burnell, Arthur Coke (15 May 2017). The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies: From the Old English Translation of 1598. The First Book, containing his Description of the East. In Two Volumes Volume I. Taylor & Francis. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-317-01231-3.
  41. ^ Sangar, Pramod (1993). Growth of the English Trade Under the Mughals. ABS Publications. p. 171. ISBN 978-81-7072-044-7.
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  43. ^ Burnell, A. C.; Yule, Henry (24 October 2018). Hobson-Jobson: Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words And Phrases. Routledge. p. 706. ISBN 978-1-136-60331-0.
  44. ^ Montgomery, Florence M. (1984). Textiles in America 1650–1870: a dictionary based on original documents, prints and paintings, commercial records, American merchants' papers, shopkeepers' advertisements, and pattern books with original swatches of cloth. New York; London: Norton. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-393-01703-8 – via Internet Archive.
  45. ^ Sinha, Narendra Krishna (1961). The Economic History of Bengal from Plassey to the Permanent Settlement. Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. p. 177.
  46. ^ Dey, Gouri (2015). "Textiles under Mughals" (PDF). Fashion and Designing under the Mughals (Akbar to Aurangzeb): A Historical Perspective (PhD). University of North Bengal. p. 87. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022. Cotton clothes: 1. Khasa per piece (than) – 3 rupiya to 15 muhr 2. Chautar per piece – 2 rupiya to 9 muhr 3. Malmal per piece – 4 rupiya 4. Tansukh per piece – 4 rupiya to 5 muhr
  47. ^ Chaudhury, Sushil (10 March 2020). Spinning Yarns: Bengal Textile Industry in the Backdrop of John Taylor's Report on 'Dacca Cloth Production' (1801). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-07920-3.
  48. ^ Bhattacharya, Ranjit Kumar; Chakrabarti, S. B. (2002). Indian Artisans: Social Institutions and Cultural Values. Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Culture, Youth Affairs and Sports, Department of Culture. p. 87. ISBN 978-81-85579-56-6.
  49. ^ Thompson, Eliza Bailey (1922). Cotton and linen. New York: Ronald. p. 70 – via University of California Libraries.
  50. ^ Oxford English Dictionary: "toile"; its earliest known use in this sense was recorded in 1561.
  51. ^ Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English ISBN 019 431 5339, 2000, page 1367
  52. ^ Guido Hofenbitzer: Maßschnitte und Passform – Schnittkonstruktion für Damenmode: Band 2 Europa-Lehrmittel; 2. Edition (5. Oktober 2016) ISBN 978-3808562444, Page 26
  53. ^ Pool, J. (1976). "Muslin gauze in intracranial vascular surgery. Technical note". Journal of Neurosurgery. 44 (1): 127–128. doi:10.3171/jns.1976.44.1.0127. PMID 1244428.
  54. ^ Berger, C.; Hartmann, M.; Wildemann, B. (March 2003). "Progressive visual loss due to a muslinoma – report of a case and review of the literature". European Journal of Neurology. 10 (2): 153–158. doi:10.1046/j.1468-1331.2003.00546.x. PMID 12603290. S2CID 883414.
  55. ^ "Jamdani recognised as intangible cultural heritage by Unesco". The Daily Star. 5 December 2013. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
  56. ^ "Muslin belongs to Bangladesh". Prothom Alo. Archived from the original on 2 January 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2021.

Further reading

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  •   Media related to Muslin at Wikimedia Commons
  •   The dictionary definition of muslin at Wiktionary
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