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Kashmiris

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This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 16 November 2024.
For other uses, see Kashmiri (disambiguation).

Kashmiris (Kashmiri pronunciation: [kəːʃirʲ]) are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group[6] speaking the Kashmiri language and originating from the Kashmir Valley, which is today located in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmiris
Kashmiri girls performing the Rouf dance at a festival in New Delhi, India, 2011
Regions with significant populations
 India6,797,587 (Jammu and Kashmir (1952–2019), 2011)*[1]
 Pakistan3,330,000 (Lahore District, 2017)†[2]
132,450 (Azad Kashmir, 1998)*[3]
 Canada6,165*[4]
Languages
Kashmiri, Urdu[5]
Religion
Majority:
Islam
(Sunni majority, Shia minority)
Minority:
Related ethnic groups
Other Indo-Aryan peoples
*The population figures are only for the number of speakers of the Kashmiri language and may not include ethnic Kashmiris who no longer speak the Kashmiri language.
†The population figures are for those who self-identify as ethnic Kashmiris, with almost none speaking the language anymore.

History

Main article: History of Kashmir
For the 1954–2019 history, see Jammu and Kashmir (state) § History.

The earliest known Neolithic sites in the Kashmir valley are from around 3000 BCE. The most important sites are at Burzahom.[7][8] During the later Vedic period, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir.[9][10]

During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became part of the Maurya Empire and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) was built.[11] Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir.[12] In the eighth century, during the Karkota Empire, Kashmir grew as an imperial power.[13] Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and conquered the eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga. He defeated the Arabs at Sindh.[14][15][13] The Utpala dynasty, founded by Avantivarman, followed the Karkotas.[16] Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Udabhandapura on her mother's side, took over as ruler in the second half of the 10th century.[13] After her death in 1003 CE, the Lohara dynasty ruled the region.[17]

In 1339, Shah Mir became the ruler of Kashmir, establishing the Shah Mir dynasty. During the rule of the Shah Mir dynasty, Islam spread in Kashmir. From 1586 to 1751, the Mughal Empire ruled Kashmir. The Afghan Durrani Empire ruled from 1747 until 1819. The Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir in 1819. In 1846, after the First Anglo-Sikh War, the Treaty of Lahore was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became ruler of Kashmir. The rule of the Dogra dynasty under the British Crown lasted until 1947, when the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir became part of India. It is now a disputed territory, administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.

Geographic distribution

See also: States of India by Kashmiri speakers, Kashmiris in Azad Kashmir, Kashmiris in Punjab, and Kashmiri language

There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India.[18] Most Kashmiris are located in the Kashmir Valley and other areas of Jammu and Kashmir.[19] In the Kashmir valley, they form a majority.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five per cent of Azad Kashmir's population.[20] According to the 1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir.[21] Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir,[22][23] particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%).[21] The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north.[23] In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue.[23] The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara.[23] At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.[24][25]

A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local dialects such as Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu.[26][22][27][23] This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at the expense of Kashmiri.[28][29] There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims have seen as their identity symbol.[30] Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.[30]

Language

The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.[31] It was a part of the eighth Schedule in the former Constitution of the Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state.[32]

 
 
An example of early Sharada script in the Bakhshali manuscript (left); Stone Slab in Verinag in Perso-Arabic script (right)

Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th century, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during the Dogra rule.[33][34] In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time.[35][36][37]

Kashmiri is closely related to Poguli and Kishtwari, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.

Krams (surnames)

See also: List of Kashmiri tribes
 
Ethnic Kashmiri girls in traditional pheran attire
 
Kashmiri Hindu priests in the 1890s

Kashmiri Hindus are Saraswat Brahmins and are known by the exonym Pandit.[38] The Muslims living in Kashmir are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are designated as Kashmiri Muslims.[39] Kashmiri Muslims are descended from Kashmiri Hindus who converted to Islam, and Kashmiri Pandits are the predecessors of the Kashmiri Muslims,[40] who now form the majority population in the Kashmir Valley[41][42] Both the Kashmiri Hindus and Muslim society reckons descent patrilineally. Certain property and titles may be inherited through the male line, but certain inheritances may accrue through the female line. After Kashmiri Hindus converted to Islam they largely retained their family names (kram) which indicated their original profession, locality or community.[38] These include:

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Kashmir and Kashmiri handicrafts
 
Kashmiri Samovar and Noon Chai


Music

Main article: Music of Jammu and Kashmir § Kashmir

The traditional types of music of Kashmir are Sufi Kalam, Wanvun, Chakri, Henzae, and Ladishah.

Some of the musical instruments used in Kashmir are Rubab, Tumbaknaer (which is of Iranian origin) and Santoor.

A traditional dance form usually performed by women on occasions like marriages and similar social functions is Rouf.[59]

Cuisine

Main article: Kashmiri cuisine

Meat and rice are popular food items among Kashmiris, rice being considered a staple food.[60][61]

Noon Chai or Sheer Chai and Kahweh are beverages of Kashmir.

Wazwan is a multi-course meal in Kashmir prepared by skilled chefs called Wazas.

Kashmir is also known for its baking traditions. Sheermal, Bakarkhani (puff pastry), Lavas (unleavened bread), Tsochwor (hard, bagel-shaped bread) and Kulche are popular baked goods.[62]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ "Abstract Of Speakers' Strength of Languages And Mother Tongues – 2011" (PDF). Census India (.gov). 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
  2. ^ "District Profile". District Lahore - Government of Punjab. Archived from the original on 27 November 2023.
  3. ^ Shakil, Mohsin (2012), Languages of Erstwhile State of Jammu Kashmir (A Preliminary Study)
  4. ^ "Canada 2021 Census Profile". Census Profile, 2021 Census. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. 7 May 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  5. ^ Khanday, A., Aabid M, Sheikh,(2018) Urdu Language in Kashmir: A Tool of Assimilation or Means towards Segregation?, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH CULTURE SOCIETY, vol 2,no 12. "Urdu being an alien language for all regions of the state does not have too many people considering it as their mother tongue in the state. This is despite the fact that most people understand and speak the language in Jammu and Kashmir."
  6. ^ Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan Das (6 December 2012). Jammu and Kashmir. Springer. p. 14. ISBN 978-94-011-9231-6.
  7. ^ Singh 2008, pp. 111–3.
  8. ^ Kennedy 2000, p. 259.
  9. ^ Rapson 1955, p. 118.
  10. ^ Sharma 1985, p. 44.
  11. ^ Sastri 1988, p. 219.
  12. ^ Chatterjee 1998, p. 199.
  13. ^ a b c Singh 2008, p. 571.
  14. ^ Majumdar 1977, pp. 260–3.
  15. ^ Wink 1991, pp. 242–5.
  16. ^ Majumdar 1977, p. 357.
  17. ^ Khan 2008, p. 58.
  18. ^ "Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 2 July 2018. The precise figures from the 2011 census are 6,554,36 for Kashmiri as a "mother tongue" and 6,797,587 for Kashmiri as a "language" (which includes closely related smaller dialects/languages).
  19. ^ "Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri". Kashmir News Network: Language Section (koshur.org). Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  20. ^ Bukhari, Shujaat (14 June 2011). "The other Kashmir". The Hindu. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  21. ^ a b Shakil, Mohsin (2012). "Languages of Erstwhile State of Jammu Kashmir (A Preliminary Study)". University of Azad Jammu and Kahsmir. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  22. ^ a b Kachru, Braj B. (3 July 2002). "The Dying Linguistic Heritage of the Kashmiris: Kashmiri Literary Culture and Language" (PDF). Kashmiri Overseas Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  23. ^ a b c d e Akhtar, Raja Nasim; Rehman, Khawaja A. (2007). "The Languages of the Neelam Valley". Kashmir Journal of Language Research. 10 (1): 65–84. ISSN 1028-6640. Additionally, Kashmiri speakers are better able to understand the variety of Srinagar than the one spoken in Muzaffarabad.
  24. ^ Kiani, Khaleeq (28 May 2018). "CCI defers approval of census results until elections". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
  25. ^ Snedden, Christopher (15 September 2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-84904-622-0.
  26. ^ Kaw, M. K. (2004). Kashmir and It's [sic] People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. APH Publishing. pp. 328–329. ISBN 978-81-7648-537-1. In parts of Pakistan, as a Pakistani scholar, Rahman observes (1996:225-226), "there are pockets of Kashmiri-speaking people in Azad Kashmir [Pakistan-occupied Kashmir] and elsewhere ..." Rahman adds that the process of language shift is in progress among Kashmiri speakers in Pakistan too, as: most of the them [Kashmiris] are gradually shifting to other languages such as the local Pahari and Mirpuri which are dialects of Punjabi...Most literate people use Urdu since, in both Azad and Indian-held Kashmir, Urdu rather than Kashmiri is the official language of government.
  27. ^ Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, Elena (24 May 2016). The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 811. ISBN 978-3-11-042338-9. In Pakistan-controlled Kashmir, Kashmiri speakers are shifting to Urdu (Dhar 2009)
  28. ^ "Up north: Call for exploration of archaeological sites". The Express Tribune. 4 June 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2020. He said Kundal Shahi and Kashmiri languages, which were spoken in the Neelum Valley, were on the verge of dying.
  29. ^ Khan, Zafar Ali (20 February 2016). "Lack of preservation causing regional languages to die a slow death". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 25 October 2020. Dr Khawaja Abdul Rehman, who spoke on Pahari and Kashmiri, said pluralistic and tolerance-promoting Kashmiri literature was fast dying, as its older generation had failed to transfer the language to its youth. He said that after a few decades, not a single Kashmiri-speaking person will be found in Muzaffarabad...
  30. ^ a b Rahman, Tariq (1996). Language and politics in Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577692-8.
  31. ^ "Scheduled Languages of India". Central Institute of Indian Languages. Archived from the original on 24 May 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  32. ^ "The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir (India)" (PDF). General Administrative Department of the Government of Jammu & Kashmir (India). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  33. ^ Weber, Siegfried (1 May 2012). "kashmir iii. Persian language in the state administration". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  34. ^ Bhat, M. Ashraf (2017). The Changing Language Roles and Linguistic Identities of the Kashmiri speech community. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 75. ISBN 9781443862608.
  35. ^ "The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020" (PDF). The Gazette of India. 27 September 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  36. ^ "Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020". Rising Kashmir. 23 September 2020. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  37. ^ ANI. "BJP president congratulates J-K people on passing of Jammu and Kashmir Official Language Bill 2020". BW Businessworld. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  38. ^ a b c Brower, Barbara; Johnston, Barbara Rose (2016). Disappearing Peoples?: Indigenous Groups and Ethnic Minorities in South and Central Asia. Routledge. ISBN 9781315430393. Kashmiri Hindus are all Saraswat brahmins, known by the exonym Pandit (the endonym being Batta), a term first reserved for emigrant Kashmiri brahmins in Mughal service. Their surnames (kram) designate their original professions or their ancestors' nicknames (e.g., Hakim, Kaul, Dhar, Raina, Teng).
  39. ^ Census of India, 1941. Vol. 22. p. 9. Retrieved 30 December 2016. The Muslims living in the southern part of the Kashmir Province are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are usually designated Kashmiri Muslims; those of the Muzaffarabad District are partly Kashmiri Muslims, partly Gujjar and the rest are of the same stock as the tribes of the neighbouring Punjab and North West Frontier Province districts.
  40. ^ Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future. APH Publishing. 2001. ISBN 9788176482363. The Kashmiri Pandits are the precursors of Kashmiri Muslims who now form a majority in the valley of Kashmir...Whereas Kashmiri Pandits are of the same ethnic stock as the Kashmiri Muslims, both sharing their habitat, language, dress, food and other habits, Kashmiri Pandits form a constituent part of the Hindu society of India on the religious plane.
  41. ^ Bhasin, M.K.; Nag, Shampa (2002). "A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir" (PDF). Journal of Human Ecology. Kamla-Raj Enterprises: 15. Retrieved 1 January 2017. Thus the two population groups, Kashmiri Pandits and Kashmiri Muslims though at the time constituted ethnically homogenous population, came to differ from each other in faith and customs.
  42. ^ Bhasin, M.K.; Nag, Shampa (2002). "A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir" (PDF). Journal of Human Ecology: 16. Retrieved 1 January 2017. The Sheikhs are considered to be the descendants of Hindus and the pure Kashmiri Muslims, professing Sunni faith, the major part of the population of Srinagar district and the Kashmir state.
  43. ^ The Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India, Volume 52. The Survey. 2003. Retrieved 2 December 2010. The But/Butt of Punjab were originally Brahmin migrants from Kashmir during 1878 famine.
  44. ^ a b c Explore Kashmiri Pandits. Dharma Publications. ISBN 9780963479860. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  45. ^ a b c Brower, Barbara; Johnston, Barbara Rose (2016). Disappearing Peoples?: Indigenous Groups and Ethnic Minorities in South and Central Asia. Routledge. ISBN 9781315430393. Retrieved 14 July 2023. Sheikh: local converts, subdivided into numerous subgroups. Most largely retain their family names, or patronyms (kram), indicating their original profession, locality or community-such as Khar (carpenter), Pampori (a place), Butt and Pandit (Brahmin), Dar (kshatriya)-but with increasing Islamization, some have dropped these.
  46. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Proceedings - Indian History Congress, Volume 63. Indian History Congress. 2003. p. 867. Retrieved 30 December 2016. ...the Muslims also retained their Hindu caste-names known as Krams e.g. Tantre, Nayak, Magre, Rather, Lone, Bat, Dar, Parray, Mantu, Yatoo.....
  47. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ahmad, Khalid Bashir (23 June 2017). Kashmir: Exposing the Myth Behind the Narrative. SAGE Publishing. ISBN 9789386062819. Retrieved 5 April 2023. One would come across among Muslims of Kashmir any number of surnames that are equally common among the Pandits. Among these are Bhat, Raina, Nath, Langoo, Malla, Bazaz, Saraf, Munshi, Watal, Wali, Khar, Shangloo, Nehru, Gagar, Kharoo, Aga, Jalali, Peer, Pandit, Parimoo and Mattoo.
  48. ^ a b c d e f g Clements, William M.; Green, Thomas A. (2006). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East. Greenwood Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-313-32849-7. A variety of Hindu surnames such as Dar, Bhatt, Handoo, Kachru, Kichlu, Matoo and Pandit persist in Muslim families.
  49. ^ a b Dhar, Nazir Ahmad (2002). "Social Distribution of Linguistic Variants in Kashmiri Speech". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 62/63: 46. ISSN 0045-9801. JSTOR 42930603. The surnames like Bhat, Pandit, Munshi, Dhar, Dar, Handoo, Kakroo, etc. characterize aboriginal affinity
  50. ^ a b c Anwar, Tarique; Bhat, Rajesh (23 February 2008). "Kashmiryat in Kashmiri surnames". Two Circles. Archived from the original on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2023. Similarly, Mirza, Dhar or Dar, Bhat, Kaul, Akhoon, Chakoo, Durrani, Kachroo, Draboo, Kaloo, Kanna, Kaw, Khar, Khuda, Kitchloo, Munshi, Machama, Mirza, Padar, Parimoo and Raina are a few typical surnames that are used by both Hindus, and Muslims of Kashmir!
  51. ^ a b c Kaul, Upendra (4 September 2020). "My name is Khan, and I'm Kaul". Greater Kashmir. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023. Similarly, Mirza, Dhar or Dar, Bhat, Akhoon, Chakoo, Durrani, Kachroo, Draboo, Kaloo, Kanna, Kaw, Khar, Khuda, Kitchloo, Munshi, Machama, Mirza, Padar, Parimoo and Raina are a few typical surnames that are used by both Hindus, and Muslims of Kashmir
  52. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Lawrence, Sir Walter Roper (2005). The Valley of Kashmir. Asian Educational Services. p. 304. ISBN 978-81-206-1630-1. Among the leading Krams may be mentioned the following names:— Tikku, Razdan, Kak, Munshi, Mathu, Kachru, Pandit, Sapru, Bhan, Zitshu, Raina, Dar, Fotadar, Madan, Thusu, Wangnu, Muju, Hokhu, and Dulu.
  53. ^ a b c d e f g Raina, Mohini Qasba (13 November 2014). Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People: Analytical Perspective. Partridge Singapore. p. 55. ISBN 9781482899450. Retrieved 5 April 2023. Among the leading Krams may be mentioned the following names: Tikku, Razdan, Kak, Munshi, Mathu, Kachru, Pandit, Sipru, Bhan, Zitshu, Raina, Dhar, Fotadar, Madan, Thusu, Wangnu, Muju, Hokhu, and Dulu. Of these the members of the Dhar family have probably been the most influential.
  54. ^ Sharma, Dhruv Dev (2005). Panorama of Indian Anthroponomy: An Historical, Socio-Cultural and Linguistic Analysis of Indian Personal Names. Mittal Publication. ISBN 9788183240789. Retrieved 5 May 2023. In Kashmiri, the Pandit surname is attested with Muslims as well, e.g. Mohd Shafi Pandit, Charman J & K Public Service Commission.
  55. ^ a b Schofield, Victoria (2003). Kashmir in conflict. I.B. Tauris & Co. p. 4. ISBN 1860648983. Retrieved 25 June 2012. ...looms rose to 24,000 by 1813. Despite the religious oppression that many Hindus were subjected, they were however, useful to the Afghans because of their administrative experience. Kashmiri Pandits were not prevented into entering into government service & there were some families whose names consistently appear in public service - the Dhars, Kauls, Tikkus & Saprus.
  56. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Agrawal, Premendra (20 August 2014). Accursed & Jihadi Neighbour. Commercial Services. p. 86. ISBN 9788193051207. Retrieved 5 April 2023. Meaning of surnames found on the Kashmiri Pandit tree: Bakaya, Sapru, Bakshi, Munshi, Wazir, Chalkbast, Bhan, Langar or Langroo, Wattal, Bazaz, Taimini, Mattu, Chak, Zalpuri, Khar, Hazari, Zutshi, Razdan, Tikhu, Kathju, sopori, Thussoo, Haksar, Raina, Waloo or Wali, Wantu/Wanchu, Gamkhwar, Kakh, Mushran, Sharga, Handoo, Gurtu, Kitchlu, and Ganjoo.
  57. ^ Hasan, Amir; Anthropological Survey of India, eds. (2005). Uttar Pradesh. Manohar: Anthropological Survey of India. p. 769. ISBN 978-81-7304-114-3. The Kesarwani Bania, or simply the Kesarwani, as they are popularly referred to, are an important group of the Vaishya or business community. They were also referred to as Baniya, Bani and Bakkal in the British time. From Kashmir, they came to Kara- Manikpur at the end of the twelfth century.
  58. ^ Wani, Muhammad Ashraf (2004). Islam in Kashmir: Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century (pages 35, 191). Oriental Publishing House. pp. 35, 191. ISBN 9788190138505.
  59. ^ "Folk Dances of Kashmir". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  60. ^ Kaw, M.K. (2004). Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. APH Publishing. p. 98. ISBN 9788176485371. But perhaps the most popular items of the Kashmiri cuisine were meat and rice.
  61. ^ Bamzai, Prithivi Nath Kaul (1994). Culture and Political History of Kashmir. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 243. ISBN 9788185880310. Rice was, as now, the staple food of Kashmiris in ancient times.
  62. ^ "Kashmir has special confectionary". Thaindian.com. 13 March 2008. Archived from the original on 12 May 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2012.

Bibliography

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