In addition to the normal karyotype, wild populations of many animal, plant, and fungi species contain B chromosomes (also known as supernumerary, accessory, (conditionally-)dispensable, or lineage-specific chromosomes).[1] By definition, these chromosomes are not essential for the life of a species, and are lacking in some (usually most) of the individuals. Thus a population would consist of individuals with 0, 1, 2, 3 (etc.) B chromosomes.[1] B chromosomes are distinct from marker chromosomes or additional copies of normal chromosomes as they occur in trisomies.
Origin
editThe evolutionary origin of supernumerary chromosomes is obscure, but presumably, they must have been derived from heterochromatic segments of normal chromosomes in the remote past. In general "we may regard supernumeraries as a very special category of genetic polymorphism which, because of manifold types of accumulation mechanisms, does not obey the ordinary Mendelian laws of inheritance."[1]
Next generation sequencing has shown that the B chromosomes from rye are amalgamations of the rye A chromosomes.[2] Similarly, B chromosomes of the cichlid fish Haplochromis latifasciatus also have been shown to arise from rearrangements of normal A chromosomes.[3]
Function
editMost B chromosomes are mainly or entirely heterochromatic (i.e. largely non-coding), but some contain sizeable euchromatic segments[4] (e.g. such as the B chromosomes of maize). In some cases, B chromosomes act as selfish genetic elements. In other cases, B chromosomes provide some positive adaptive advantage. For instance, the British grasshopper Myrmeleotettix maculatus has two structural types of B chromosomes: metacentrics and submetacentric. The supernumeraries, which have a satellite DNA, occur in warm, dry environments, and are scarce or absent in humid, cooler localities.
There is evidence of deleterious effects of supernumeraries on pollen fertility, and favourable effects or associations with particular habitats are also known in a number of species.[citation needed]
B chromosomes have a tendency to accumulate in meiotic cell products resulting in an increase of B number over generations, thereby acting as selfish genetic elements. However, this effect is counterbalanced for selection against infertility.
In fungi
editChromosome polymorphisms are very common among fungi. Different isolates of the same species often have a different chromosome number, with some of these additional chromosomes being unnecessary for normal growth in culture. The extra chromosomes are known as conditionally dispensable, or supernumerary, because they are dispensable for certain situations, but may confer a selective advantage under different environments.[5]
Supernumerary chromosomes do not carry genes that are necessary for basic fungal growth but may have some functional significance. For example, it has been discovered that the supernumerary chromosome of the pea pathogen Haematonectria haematococca carries genes that are important to the disease-causing capacity of the fungus. This supernumerary DNA was found to code for a group of enzymes that metabolize toxins, known as phytoalexins, that are secreted by the plant's immune system.[5] It is possible that these supernumerary elements originated in horizontal gene transfer events because sequence analysis often indicates that they have a different evolutionary history from essential chromosomal DNA.[5]
The wheat-infecting fungal pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici contains 8 dispensable B-chromosomes, which is the largest number of dispensable chromosomes observed in fungi.[6]
In plants
editB-chromosomes are a significant reflection of genetic diversity between varying plant species.[7] These supernumerary chromosomes are commonly observed in angiosperms, specifically the flowering plants bred through outcrossing.[7]
The obscure development of B-chromosomes is supported by the irregularity of their appearances in specific species populations. The number of B-chromosomes copied between cells within individual members of a plant population fluctuates.[8] For example, the sister species Aegilops speltoides and Aegilops mutica possess copies of B-chromosomes within their aerial tissues, while their roots exhibit an absence of these supernumerary chromosomes.[8]
The morphological structure and size of B-chromosomes is different from normally-occurring chromosomes in both plants and mammals.[8] Most often in plants, B-chromosomes are notably “non-homologous and smaller than the smallest A-chromosome”.[8]
References
edit- ^ a b c White, M. J. D. (1973). The chromosomes (6th ed.). London: Chapman and Hall. p. 171. ISBN 0-412-11930-7.
- ^ Martis, Mihaela Maria; Klemme, Sonja; Banaei-Moghaddam, Ali Mohammad; Blattner, Frank R.; Macas, Jiří; Schmutzer, Thomas; Scholz, Uwe; Gundlach, Heidrun; Wicker, Thomas; Šimková, Hana; Novák, Petr; Neumann, Pavel; Kubaláková, Marie; Bauer, Eva; Haseneyer, Grit; Fuchs, Jörg; Doležel, Jaroslav; Stein, Nils; Mayer, Klaus F. X.; Houben, Andreas (14 August 2012). "Selfish supernumerary chromosome reveals its origin as a mosaic of host genome and organellar sequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (33): 13343–13346. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10913343M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1204237109. PMC 3421217. PMID 22847450.
- ^ Valente, Guilherme T.; Conte, Matthew A.; Fantinatti, Bruno E.A.; Cabral-de-Mello, Diogo C.; Carvalho, Robson F.; Vicari, Marcelo R.; Kocher, Thomas D.; Martins, Cesar (August 2014). "Origin and Evolution of B Chromosomes in the Cichlid Fish Astatotilapia latifasciata Based on Integrated Genomic Analyses". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 31 (8): 2061–2072. doi:10.1093/molbev/msu148. PMID 24770715.
- ^ Trifonov, Vladimir A; Dementyeva, Polina V; Larkin, Denis M; O’Brien, Patricia CM; Perelman, Polina L; Yang, Fengtang; Ferguson-Smith, Malcolm A; Graphodatsky, Alexander S (December 2013). "Transcription of a protein-coding gene on B chromosomes of the Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus)". BMC Biology. 11 (1): 90. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-11-90. PMC 3751663. PMID 23915065.
- ^ a b c Covert, Sarah F. (May 1998). "Supernumerary chromosomes in filamentous fungi". Current Genetics. 33 (5): 311–319. doi:10.1007/s002940050342. PMID 9618581. S2CID 7002492.
- ^ Goodwin, Stephen B.; Ben M'Barek, Sarrah; Dhillon, Braham; Wittenberg, Alexander H. J.; Crane, Charles F.; Hane, James K.; Foster, Andrew J.; Van der Lee, Theo A. J.; Grimwood, Jane; Aerts, Andrea; Antoniw, John; Bailey, Andy; Bluhm, Burt; Bowler, Judith; Bristow, Jim; van der Burgt, Ate; Canto-Canché, Blondy; Churchill, Alice C. L.; Conde-Ferràez, Laura; Cools, Hans J.; Coutinho, Pedro M.; Csukai, Michael; Dehal, Paramvir; De Wit, Pierre; Donzelli, Bruno; van de Geest, Henri C.; van Ham, Roeland C. H. J.; Hammond-Kosack, Kim E.; Henrissat, Bernard; Kilian, Andrzej; Kobayashi, Adilson K.; Koopmann, Edda; Kourmpetis, Yiannis; Kuzniar, Arnold; Lindquist, Erika; Lombard, Vincent; Maliepaard, Chris; Martins, Natalia; Mehrabi, Rahim; Nap, Jan P. H.; Ponomarenko, Alisa; Rudd, Jason J.; Salamov, Asaf; Schmutz, Jeremy; Schouten, Henk J.; Shapiro, Harris; Stergiopoulos, Ioannis; Torriani, Stefano F. F.; Tu, Hank; de Vries, Ronald P.; Waalwijk, Cees; Ware, Sarah B.; Wiebenga, Ad; Zwiers, Lute-Harm; Oliver, Richard P.; Grigoriev, Igor V.; Kema, Gert H. J. (9 June 2011). "Finished Genome of the Fungal Wheat Pathogen Mycosphaerella graminicola Reveals Dispensome Structure, Chromosome Plasticity, and Stealth Pathogenesis". PLOS Genetics. 7 (6): e1002070. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002070. PMC 3111534. PMID 21695235.
- ^ a b Houben, Andreas; Banaei-Moghaddam, Ali Mohammad; Klemme, Sonja (2013), Greilhuber, Johann; Dolezel, Jaroslav; Wendel, Jonathan F. (eds.), "Biology and Evolution of B Chromosomes", Plant Genome Diversity Volume 2: Physical Structure, Behaviour and Evolution of Plant Genomes, Vienna: Springer, pp. 149–165, doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1160-4_10, ISBN 978-3-7091-1160-4, retrieved 2023-12-05
- ^ a b c d Douglas, Ryan N.; Birchler, James A. (2017), Bhat, Tariq Ahmad; Wani, Aijaz Ahmad (eds.), "B Chromosomes", Chromosome Structure and Aberrations, New Delhi: Springer India, pp. 13–39, doi:10.1007/978-81-322-3673-3_2, ISBN 978-81-322-3673-3, retrieved 2023-12-05
Further reading
edit- Burt, Austin; Trivers, Robert (2005). "Nine: B chromosomes". Genes in Conflict: The Biology of Selfish Genetic Elements. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 325–380. ISBN 0-674-01713-7.
- Camacho, Juan Pedro M.; Sharbel, Timothy F.; Beukeboom, Leo W. (29 February 2000). "B-chromosome evolution". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 355 (1394): 163–178. doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0556. PMC 1692730. PMID 10724453.
- Camacho, Juan Pedro M. (2004). B Chromosomes in the Eukaryote Genome. Karger. ISBN 978-3-8055-7807-3.