Airborne Thermal Imagery to Detect the Seasonal Evolution of Crop Water Status in Peach, Nectarine and Saturn Peach Orchards
"> Figure 1
<p>Thermal mosaic acquired at 0.20 m pixel resolution, observing in (<b>a</b>) nectarine and peach orchards. In red are shown the areas where the irrigation treatments were located; (<b>b</b>) detailed study site area used for field data collection in the peach orchard. Trees under different irrigation treatments (full-irrigation control, moderate and deficit irrigation) were measured and located with aluminium foil between rows; and (<b>c</b>) peach trees under different irrigation treatments used for pure tree crown temperature extraction.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Relationships between the difference of canopy and air temperature (T<sub>c</sub>-T<sub>a</sub>) and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) for the 10:00 to 16:00 hour data of fully irrigated control peach trees, showing: (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) differences between years (2012 and 2013) at different phenological stages (Stages II and III, and post-harvest); and (<b>d</b>) seasonal response for two years data. All relationships were significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.0001).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) Non-water-stressed baselines (NWSB), and (<b>b</b>) lower and upper limits, used to calculate the CWSI for peach trees at different phenological stages (Stages II and III, Post-harvest) and (<b>c</b>) for the entire growing season (All Season). All relationships were significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.0001).</p> "> Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) Comparison of the relationship between crop water stress index (CWSI) and leaf water potential (Ψ<sub>L</sub>) for peach trees at different phenological stages of the 2012 and 2013 growing seasons. CWSI has been calculated using the lower and upper limits for each specific phenological stage (<span class="html-italic">Stages</span>) and for all the season (<span class="html-italic">All Season</span>). All relationships were significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.0001).</p> "> Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>h</b>) Relationships between observed and estimated Ψ<sub>L</sub> for peach trees at different phenological stages of the 2012 and 2013 growing seasons. Estimated Ψ<sub>L</sub> has been obtained from the calculation of CWSI using: (<b>left</b>) a common equation for all the season; and (<b>right</b>) equations for each phenological stage. All relationships were significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.0001).</p> "> Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) Seasonal validation of the relationship between CWSI and leaf water potential (Ψ<sub>L</sub>) in nectarine for the 2012 and 2013 growing season and Saturn peach trees for 2014 growing season. Data obtained for peach trees has been added as standard comparison. All relationships were significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.0001).</p> "> Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) Relationships between observed and estimated Ψ<sub>L</sub> for peach, nectarine and Saturn peaches at different phenological stages using data from 2012 to 2014 growing seasons. All relationships were significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.0001).</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Maps of remotely sensed leaf water potential (Ψ<sub>est</sub>) at different phenological stages of the 2013 growing season for a 2-ha peach (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) and 2.2-ha nectarine orchard (<b>e</b>–<b>f</b>). Two different irrigation treatments were applied at irrigation sector level (full irrigation, CONTROL) and Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI). Averaged Ψ<sub>est</sub> values for each irrigation sector are indicated. The equations applied to estimate Ψ<sub>est</sub> from CWSI were the following: y = −1.846x<sup>2</sup> + 0.426x − 0.773 (stage II), y = −1.171x<sup>2</sup> − 0.714 − 0.805 (stage III), and y = −1.558x − 1.144 (post-harvest).</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Relationship between stomatal conductance and (<b>a</b>) leaf water potential (Ψ<sub>L</sub>) and; (<b>b</b>) CWSI in nectarines throughout the 2013 growing season. All relationships were significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.0001).</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Infrared Temperature Data
Year | Flight Day | Stage | Orchard | Tair (°C) | VPD (kPa) | Rad (W·m−2) | Wind Speed (kph) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2012 | 14 May | II | P + N | 24.0 | 2.4 | 926 | 6 |
1 June | II | P + N | 31.3 | 3.8 | 947 | 7 | |
15 June | III | P + N | 32.1 | 3.4 | 959 | 8 | |
6 July | III | P + N | 27.6 | 2.5 | 933 | 8 | |
31 July | PH | P + N | 31.4 | 2.9 | 914 | 10 | |
21 August | PH | P + N | 34.0 | 4.2 | 849 | 7 | |
2013 | 7 May | II | P + N | 24.4 | 1.6 | 904 | 11 |
13 May | II | P + N | 20.0 | 1.6 | 1052 | 4 | |
4 June | II | P + N | 23.6 | 1.6 | 1083 | 6 | |
11 June | III | P + N | 28.5 | 2.6 | 1082 | 3 | |
25 June | III | P + N | 22.5 | 1.6 | 1078 | 8 | |
3 July | III | P + N | 29.6 | 2.3 | 882 | 12 | |
16 July | PH | P + N | 33.0 | 3.0 | 1032 | 3 | |
31 July | PH | P + N | 33.7 | 3.8 | 1043 | 8 | |
12 August | PH | P + N | 31.3 | 3.3 | 968 | 3 | |
2014 | 30 April | II | SP | 21.9 | 1.6 | 902 | 16 |
13 May | II | SP | 21.1 | 1.8 | 1050 | 25 | |
29 May | II | SP | 19.7 | 1.0 | 960 | 4 | |
6 June | III | SP | 28.2 | 1.9 | 1034 | 9 | |
13 June | III | SP | 30.8 | 2.3 | 940 | 0 | |
27 June | III | SP | 28.2 | 2.6 | 1184 | 0 | |
27 August | PH | SP | 30.2 | 2.3 | 963 | 10 |
2.3. Airborne Campaign
2.4. Spatial Resolution Assessment
2.5. Estimation of ѰL from CWSI and Validations
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Non-Water-Stressed Baselines
2012 | 2013 | All Years | ||
VPD | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | |
Stage | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | <0.0001 * | |
Stage × VPD | 0.957 | <0.0001 * | 0.0641 | |
Contrast ** | Stage | Stage | Stage × VPD | Stage |
Stage II vs. III | 0.0414 | - | 0.0451 | 0.0197 |
Stage II vs. PH | - | 0.0059 | <0.0001 | 0.0431 |
Stage III vs. PH | - | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | - |
3.2. Relationship between CWSI and ΨL for Peach Trees
3.3. Validation for Nectarine and Saturn Peach
3.4. Minimum Pixel Size to Detect Water Stress
Grapevines | Peaches & Nectarines | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ΨL vs. CWSI | ΨL vs. Ψest | ||||
Pixel Size (m) | R2 | R2 | Equation | Equation | RMSE |
0.15 | - | 0.76 * | y = −1.708 x2 + 0.194x − 0.993 | y = 0.905x − 0.263 | 0.21 |
0.30 | 0.71 | 0.75 * | y = −1.669 x2 + 0.252x − 1.060 | y = 0.942x − 0.187 | 0.21 |
0.60 | 0.38 | 0.66 * | y = −0.573 x2 − 0.707x − 0.883 | y = 0.986x − 0.147 | 0.27 |
0.80 | 0.27 | 0.65 * | y = −0.249 x2 − 0.979x − 0.850 | y = 1.053x − 0.044 | 0.28 |
1.00 | 0.22 | 0.56 * | y = −0.224 x2 − 0.743x − 0.908 | y = 1.204x − 0.009 | 0.46 |
1.20 | <0.10 | 0.28 | y = − 0.742x − 0.997 | y = 0.808x − 0.586 | 0.56 |
1.50 | 0.28 | 0.11 | y = − 0.468x − 1.089 | y = 0.651x − 1.143 | 0.88 |
2.00 | 0.29 | <0.10 | - | - | - |
3.5. Maps of Remotely Estimated ΨL
4. Discussion
Species | Cultivar | a | b | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Peach | Royal Glory | −1.71 | 3.87 | This study |
Nectarine | Independence | −1.69 | 0.68 | [34] |
Apple | Royal Gala | −3.90 | 1.00 | [35] |
Sweet lime | Swing | −1.74 | 3.61 | [36] |
Pistachio | Kerman | −1.33 | 2.44 | [20] |
Olive | Arbequina | −2.05 | 3.97 | [37] |
Mandarin | Clemenvilla | −0.50 | 4.06 | [21] |
Orange | Powell | −0.38 | 4.58 | [21] |
Grapevines | Chardonnay | −1.39 | 2.16 | [5] |
4.1. Validations with Nectarine and Saturn Peach
ΨL Range (MPa) | RMSE |
---|---|
−2.0 to −2.6 | 0.26 |
−1.6 to 1.9 | 0.25 |
−1.3 to −1.8 | 0.22 |
−1.0 to −1.2 | 0.18 |
−0.6 to −0.9 | 0.18 |
4.2. Minimum Pixel Size for Water Stress Detection
4.3. Monitoring Irrigation Based on Crop Water Status Maps
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bellvert, J.; Marsal, J.; Girona, J.; Gonzalez-Dugo, V.; Fereres, E.; Ustin, S.L.; Zarco-Tejada, P.J. Airborne Thermal Imagery to Detect the Seasonal Evolution of Crop Water Status in Peach, Nectarine and Saturn Peach Orchards. Remote Sens. 2016, 8, 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8010039
Bellvert J, Marsal J, Girona J, Gonzalez-Dugo V, Fereres E, Ustin SL, Zarco-Tejada PJ. Airborne Thermal Imagery to Detect the Seasonal Evolution of Crop Water Status in Peach, Nectarine and Saturn Peach Orchards. Remote Sensing. 2016; 8(1):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8010039
Chicago/Turabian StyleBellvert, Joaquim, Jordi Marsal, Joan Girona, Victoria Gonzalez-Dugo, Elías Fereres, Susan L. Ustin, and Pablo J. Zarco-Tejada. 2016. "Airborne Thermal Imagery to Detect the Seasonal Evolution of Crop Water Status in Peach, Nectarine and Saturn Peach Orchards" Remote Sensing 8, no. 1: 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8010039