Journal of Instrumentation

paper • The following article is Open access

The design, implementation, and performance of the LZ calibration systems

J. Aalbers^1,2, D.S. Akerib^1,2, A.K. Al Musalhi³, F. Alder³, C.S. Amarasinghe^4,5, A. Ames^1,2, T.J. Anderson^1,2, N. Angelides⁶, H.M. Araújo⁶, J.E. Armstrong⁷, M. Arthurs^1,2, A. Baker⁶, S. Balashov⁸, J. Bang⁹, E.E. Barillier^5,40, J.W. Bargemann⁴, K. Beattie¹⁰, T. Benson¹¹, A. Bhatti⁷, A. Biekert^12,10, T.P. Biesiadzinski^1,2, H.J. Birch⁵, E. Bishop¹³, G.M. Blockinger¹⁴, B. Boxer¹⁵, C.A.J. Brew⁸, P. Brás¹⁶, S. Burdin¹⁷, M. Buuck^1,2, M.C. Carmona-Benitez¹⁸, M. Carter¹⁷, A. Chawla¹⁹, H. Chen¹⁰, J.J. Cherwinka¹¹, Y.T. Chin¹⁸, N.I. Chott²⁰, M.V. Converse²¹, A. Cottle³, G. Cox²², D. Curran²², C.E. Dahl^23,24, A. David³, J. Delgaudio²², S. Dey²⁵, L. de Viveiros¹⁸, L. Di Felice⁶, C. Ding⁹, J.E.Y. Dobson²⁶, E. Druszkiewicz²¹, S.R. Eriksen²⁷, A. Fan^1,2, N.M. Fearon²⁵, N. Fieldhouse²⁵, S. Fiorucci¹⁰, H. Flaecher²⁷, E.D. Fraser¹⁷, T.M.A. Fruth²⁸, R.J. Gaitskell⁹, A. Geffre²², J. Genovesi²⁰, C. Ghag³, R. Gibbons^12,10, S. Gokhale²⁹, J. Green²⁵, M.G.D. van der Grinten⁸, J.J. Haiston²⁰, C.R. Hall⁷, S. Han^1,2, E. Hartigan-O'Connor⁹, S.J. Haselschwardt¹⁰, M.A. Hernandez^5,40, S.A. Hertel³⁰, G. Heuermann⁵, G.J. Homenides³¹, M. Horn²², D.Q. Huang^5,32, D. Hunt²⁵, E. Jacquet⁶, R.S. James³, J. Johnson¹⁵, A.C. Kaboth¹⁹, A.C. Kamaha³², M. Kannichankandy¹⁴, D. Khaitan²¹, A. Khazov⁸, I. Khurana³, J. Kim⁴, Y.D. Kim³⁵, J. Kingston¹⁵, R. Kirk⁹, D. Kodroff^10,18, L. Korley⁵, E.V. Korolkova³³, H. Kraus²⁵, S. Kravitz³⁴, L. Kreczko²⁷, V.A. Kudryavtsev³³, D.S. Leonard³⁵, K.T. Lesko¹⁰, C. Levy¹⁴, J. Lin^12,10, A. Lindote¹⁶, R. Linehan^1,2, W.H. Lippincott⁴, M.I. Lopes¹⁶, W. Lorenzon⁵, C. Lu⁹, S. Luitz¹, P.A. Majewski⁸, A. Manalaysay¹⁰, R.L. Mannino³⁶, C. Maupin²², M.E. McCarthy²¹, G. McDowell⁵, D.N. McKinsey^12,10, J. McLaughlin²³, J.B. Mclaughlin³, R. McMonigle¹⁴, E.H. Miller^1,2, E. Mizrachi^36,7, A. Monte⁴, M.E. Monzani^1,2,37, J.D. Morales Mendoza^1,2, E. Morrison²⁰, B.J. Mount³⁸, M. Murdy³⁰, A.St.J. Murphy¹³, A. Naylor³³, H.N. Nelson⁴, F. Neves¹⁶, A. Nguyen¹³, J.A. Nikoleyczik¹¹, I. Olcina^12,10, K.C. Oliver-Mallory⁶, J. Orpwood³³, K.J. Palladino²⁵, J. Palmer¹⁹, N.J. Pannifer²⁷, N. Parveen¹⁴, S.J. Patton¹⁰, B. Penning^5,40, G. Pereira¹⁶, E. Perry³, T. Pershing³⁶, A. Piepke³¹, Y. Qie²¹, J. Reichenbacher²⁰, C.A. Rhyne⁹, Q. Riffard¹⁰, G.R.C. Rischbieter⁵, H.S. Riyat¹³, R. Rosero²⁹, T. Rushton³³, D. Rynders²², D. Santone¹⁹, A.B.M.R. Sazzad³¹, R.W. Schnee²⁰, S. Shaw¹³, T. Shutt^1,2, J.J. Silk⁷, C. Silva¹⁶, G. Sinev²⁰, J. Siniscalco³, R. Smith^12,10, V.N. Solovov¹⁶, P. Sorensen¹⁰, J. Soria^12,10, I. Stancu³¹, A. Stevens^3,6, K. Stifter²⁴, B. Suerfu^12,10, T.J. Sumner⁶, M. Szydagis¹⁴, W.C. Taylor⁹, D.R. Tiedt²², M. Timalsina^10,20, Z. Tong⁶, D.R. Tovey³³, J. Tranter³³, M. Trask⁴, M. Tripathi¹⁵, D.R. Tronstad²⁰, A. Vacheret⁶, A.C. Vaitkus⁹, O. Valentino⁶, V. Velan¹⁰, A. Wang^1,2, J.J. Wang³¹, Y. Wang^12,10, J.R. Watson^12,10, R.C. Webb³⁹, L. Weeldreyer³¹, T.J. Whitis⁴, M. Williams⁵, W.J. Wisniewski¹, F.L.H. Wolfs²¹, S. Woodford¹⁷, D. Woodward^10,18, C.J. Wright²⁷, Q. Xia¹⁰, X. Xiang²⁹, J. Xu³⁶, M. Yeh²⁹, E.A. Zweig³² and The LZ collaboration

Published 29 August 2024 • © 2024 The Author(s)
Journal of Instrumentation, Volume 19, August 2024 Citation J. Aalbers et al 2024 JINST 19 P08027 DOI 10.1088/1748-0221/19/08/P08027

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Author e-mails

qingxia@lbl.gov

akamaha@physics.ucla.edu

Author affiliations

¹ SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA 94025-7015, U.S.A.

² Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-4085 U.S.A.

³ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London (UCL), London WC1E 6BT, U.K.

⁴ Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9530, U.S.A.

⁵ Randall Laboratory of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1040, U.S.A.

⁶ Blackett Laboratory, Physics Department, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.

⁷ Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-4111, U.S.A.

⁸ STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL), Didcot, OX11 0QX, U.K.

⁹ Department of Physics, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912-9037, U.S.A.

¹⁰ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Berkeley, CA 94720-8099, U.S.A.

¹¹ Department of Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706-1390, U.S.A.

¹² Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-7300, U.S.A.

¹³ School of Physics and Astronomy, SUPA, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, U.K.

¹⁴ Department of Physics, University at Albany (SUNY), Albany, NY 12222-0100, U.S.A.

¹⁵ Department of Physics, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616-5270, U.S.A.

¹⁶ Laboratório de Instrumentação e Física Experimental de Partículas (LIP), University of Coimbra, P-3004 516 Coimbra, Portugal

¹⁷ Department of Physics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZE, U.K.

¹⁸ Department of Physics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802-6300, U.S.A.

¹⁹ Department of Physics, University of London, Royal Holloway, Egham, TW20 0EX, U.K.

²⁰ South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD 57701-3901, U.S.A.

²¹ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627-0171, U.S.A.

²² South Dakota Science and Technology Authority (SDSTA), Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, SD 57754-1700, U.S.A.

²³ Department of Physics & Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-3112, U.S.A.

²⁴ Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL), Batavia, IL 60510-5011, U.S.A.

²⁵ Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RH, U.K.

²⁶ King's College London, London, U.K.

²⁷ H.H. Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TL, U.K.

²⁸ School of Physics, The University of Sydney, Physics Road, Camperdown, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia

²⁹ Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), Upton, NY 11973-5000, U.S.A.

³⁰ Department of Physics, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-9337, U.S.A.

³¹ Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 34587-0324, U.S.A.

³² Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Califonia, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1547, U.S.A.

³³ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, U.K.

³⁴ Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712-1192, U.S.A.

³⁵ IBS Center for Underground Physics (CUP), Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea

³⁶ Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), Livermore, CA 94550-9698, U.S.A.

³⁷ Vatican Observatory, Castel Gandolfo, V-00120, Vatican City State

³⁸ School of Natural Sciences, Black Hills State University, Spearfish, SD 57799-0002, U.S.A.

³⁹ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4242, U.S.A.

⁴⁰ Department of Physics, University of Zurich, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland

ORCID iDs

A.C. Kamaha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1553-8474

Dates

Received 7 June 2024
Accepted 4 August 2024
Published 29 August 2024

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Abstract

LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) is a tonne-scale experiment searching for direct dark matter interactions and other rare events. It is located at the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) in Lead, South Dakota, USA. The core of the LZ detector is a dual-phase xenon time projection chamber (TPC), designed with the primary goal of detecting Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) via their induced low energy nuclear recoils. Surrounding the TPC, two veto detectors immersed in an ultra-pure water tank enable reducing background events to enhance the discovery potential. Intricate calibration systems are purposely designed to precisely understand the responses of these three detector volumes to various types of particle interactions and to demonstrate LZ's ability to discriminate between signals and backgrounds. In this paper, we present a comprehensive discussion of the key features, requirements, and performance of the LZ calibration systems, which play a crucial role in enabling LZ's WIMP-search and its broad science program. The thorough description of these calibration systems, with an emphasis on their novel aspects, is valuable for future calibration efforts in direct dark matter and other rare-event search experiments.

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